I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ,1 



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UNITED STATES OE AMERICA 



AN ANALYSIS 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES, 



IN THEIR 



FORMS, COMBINATIONS, AND RELATIONS. 



WITH METHODS FOR DETERMINING THEIR 



GEAMMATICAL, LOGICAL, AND RHETORICAL USES. 



DESIGNED TOR THE HIGHER GRADES OF SCHOOLS. 

/ 
/ 

BY 

SAMUEL S> V GREENE, LL.D., 

AUTHOR OF "INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF GRAMMAR" AND OF 
"ENGLISH GRAMMAR." 



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PHILADELPHIA: A 
COWPERTHWAIT & CO. 
1874. 



-fEn" 



GREENE'S 

New Series of Grammars: 



RETAIL PRICE 

I. Greene's New Introduction $ .56 

II. Greene's New Eng-lish Grammar 1.05 

III. Greene's New Analysis 1.20 



The Author has recently Revised these Books, and has condensed, simpli- 
fied, and otherwise improved his System, which is now preferred by almost all 
the leading Teachers of the Country. 

They form a connected Series; hut each hook is complete in itself, and 
may he used independently of the others. Their "best recommendation is the 
fact that they are in general use as Text-Books throughout the United States. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by 

SAMUEL S. GREENE, LL.D., 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



WMTCOTT & THOMSON, 
Sttrtntypen and RlKctrotyperi, Phlla. 



Deacon ft Petbkson, 
Printers, Phila. 



PREFACE. 



To form a complete judgment of the merits of a sentence, something 
more than a knowledge of its outward form is necessary. A sentence 
is thought (sententia) as well as expression, or, rather, thought and 
expression in the most intimate union. This union is not mechanical, 
but vital — a union in which thought is life, and outward form a definite 
organism for its manifestation. As an external form, a sentence con- 
sists of words, phrases, and clauses variously classified and combined. 
As a thought, it is some judgment, opinion, command, inquiry, request, 
intimation, or sentiment of the speaker. No method of analysis is 
complete which does not recognize the sentence in both these aspects. 

The external elements are the most conspicuous — in fact, the only 
ones that appeal to the senses. For this reason, and not because they 
are first in reality or first in importance, are they to be considered first. 
Yet even in the analysis of these we must not overlook the fact that 
language is a direct outgrowth of thought, and that its elements are 
directly responsive to the elements of thought — the substantive to the 
thought of substance, the attributive to that of attribute, and the rela- 
tive to that of relation. No less true is it that the external combi- 
nations respond to the inward combinations of thought. In the pre- 
dicative and attributive combinations, the substantive predominates 
and forms the leading term, in the objective and adverbial, the attribu- 
tive. Yet in determining the grand divisions and the minor parts of 
the sentence, the grammarian, like the geologist, is guided not so much 
by the instant impulse of thought as by the lines and traces which it 
leaves behind. 

Not so when thought assumes its rightful sway. Language becomes, 
at once, its servant, the organ and instrument for its manifestation to 
the senses. When language is thus subordinated and placed in its 
normal relation to thought, like the eye in seeing or the ear in hear- 



PREFACE. 



ing, it ceases to be obtrusive ; all verbal distinctions disappear. The 
mind at once grasps and wields those conventional forms which most 
readily reveal the results of its activities. Yet not satisfied with the 
ordinary forms, it soon seeks for those which are impressive, attractive, 
and even startling, and hence the distinction between adequate and 
effective expression. 

Analysis now becomes something more than a discrimination of 
verbal forms. It springs from insight — from a full recognition of the 
presence and agency of thought in summoning to its aid the most 
suitable forms of expression. It recognizes an aim in the use of lan- 
guage, and judges alike of the fitness of that which a writer has 
already employed, or of that which offers itself for immediate use 
from one's own linguistic resources. 

The sixth chapter is devoted to the higher analysis. It is intended 
for those who have made some progress in the study of language, and 
can be omitted without marring the unity of the course. It is hoped 
that the teacher may derive from it valuable hints in conducting 
exercises in language, even if he cannot take his classes formally 
through it. 

The author takes pleasure in acknowledging his obligations to many 
teachers for various suggestions and improvements which have been 
in one form or another incorporated into the parts of this new edition. 

'In the development of the sixth chapter he has also received many 
important hints from Rev. Dr. Dodge, President of Madison University, 
and while the work was passing through the press, from Professor T. 
W. Bancroft, of Brown University, and from Rev. Daniel Leach, Super- 
intendent of Public Schools, Providence, Bhode Island. He is espe- 
cially indebted to Professor H. B. Buckham, of the Buffalo State 
Normal School, for the preparation of the selections and for important 
suggestions in regard to the symbols by which the sentence is repre- 
sented. 

S. S. GREENE. 

Providence, R. I., December, 1873. 



INDEX 



A . . peculiar use of. 236, a 

Abridged clauses 688-690 

construction 693-704 

Absolute nominative 699 

tenses 193-196 

Abstract nouns 69, 5 

thought 826 

words 825 

Active voice 174, 1 

Adjective element defined. 10, 1, 227 

the word, defined 95 

limiting 97, 99 

qualifying 98, 247-250 

pronominal 99, 2, 237-244 

numeral 99, 3, 245, 246 

participial 249 

comparison of. 152-158 

position of 32, a 

rule for 159 

the phrase 462 

the clause 580 

Adverbial element defined.. 10, 3, 317 

the word, defined 318, 319 

denoting place 321, 322 

time 323-325 

cause 326 

manner 327 

modal 328 

conjunctive 329 

interrogative 330 

comparison of. 331, 332 

position of 32, a 

rule for 333 

the phrase, defined 488 

denoting place 491-494 

time 499, 500 

cause 504-506 

manner 509-516 

the clause, defined 615, 616 

denoting place 619, 620 

time 623, 626 

cause 632-664 

manner 670-674 

Adversative clauses 731 

conjunctions 376, 2 

Agreement of pronouns 585 



Agreement of verbs 168 

of verb and pronoun with 

co-ordinate nouns 385 

Aim in discourse 783 

All, peculiar use of 283, 1, c 

Allegory defined 852 

Alternative clauses 731 

conjunctions 376, 3 

Analysis, complete 811 

successive steps in 40-47 

Antecedent 582 

Antithesis 856 

Apostrophe, figure of 860 

mark of 223 

Apposition, rule for 258 

Arrangements of elements. 32, 875 a 

Article defined 99, 1 

use of. 283, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 

Attention fixed on thought 781 

Attribute, classes of 81-84 

in abridged) 692 1 9 ^ 

propositions. J 05 "' ij z ' 6 

of a proposition 54, obs. 

Attributive, a word 13, 2 

combinations 23, 25 

as principal 25, 28 

as predicate 54 

as object 302, 305, 308, 477 

same as verbs, participles, and 
adjectives 36, 2, a 

Auxiliaries defined 203 

uses of. 204, a, b 

table of 205 

formative or | .. n „,- „ » „ -., 
relationwonls.f 4l0 ' 4l2 ' a >^ 417 
simple or combined.. 431, 1, 2, 432 



Balanced sentence 891 

Basis 17, 2 

Be, a copula 54, obs. 

as auxiliary 203, 204, 205 

Both, peculiar use of. 283, 1, c 

as correlative 726, a 

5 



INDEX. 



Can, as auxiliary 203 

Caret 223 

Case, denned 134 

rule for, Appendix V. 

Causal Clauses 632-637 

connective 376, 4 

Cautions for predica- I 212-221 

tive combinations. J 

for attributive j 282-285 

combinations. J 

for adjective combinations. 313-316 
for adverbial combination. 341-351 
for co-ordinate I 297-403 

combinations. J 

for the formative element.. 522-525 

for subordinate clauses 711-719 

for co-ordinate clauses j -j-jx-jj 
or sentences. j '" 

for ellipses 814 

for similes 849 

practical 895-906 

Choice of words 827-829 

Circumlocution 883, 1 

Class 824 

element of the first 46, A 

element of the second.... 46, B, 4!l 

element of the third 46, C, 551 

Class-words 824 

Clauses, used as \ 
a single word. J " 
as an element of a sentence... 549 
as an element of the third class. 551 

subordinate 550, 553 

component parts ) 

of subordinate, j 

considered as a whole 558 

substantive, adjec- j 559-562 
tive, and adverbial, j "" 

substantive 563-567 

subordinate as prin- 
cipal element, 
as adjective element.... 580-590 
as objective element.... 597-606 
as adverbial element.... 615-674 

co-ordinate 720-747 

Clearness 879, 880, 883, 1 

Climax 862 

Collective noun, defined 69, 4 

as subject of verb, 1 
also as antecedent. | 
Comparison of adjectives.... 152-158 

of adverbs 331, 332 

Complex sentence, how formed. 553 

how contracted 689 

unity of 872. a 

element 46, A, 2, B, 2, C, 2 

first class 359-365 

second class 526-528 



5, C, 1 



563-577 



168, b 



Complex, third class 680 

subject 229 

errors in 216 

predicate 239 

possessive 272 

Compound sentence 720 

clauses of 72i, 722 

how contracted 756 

unity of. 872, a 

elements 46, A, 3, B, 3, C, 3 

of the first class 339-391 

second class 536-539 

third class 631, 682 

pronouns 69, 2, 3 

Concessive clauses 662-664 

Conciseness 883, 1 

Concretes 823 

Conditional clauses 632, 643-649 

Conditions for the effective use 
of language, for the speaker 

or writer 778-788 

Conditions for the effective use 
of language, for the hearer 

or reader 797-803 

Conjugation of auxiliaries 205 

of verb App. III. 

Conjunctions co- ) 33 

ordmate,defined. j 

copulative 376, 1 

adversative 376, 2 

alternative 376, 3 

causal 376, 4 

rule for 380 

subordinate, defined 554, 555 

rule for 556 

subordinate for sub- ) ecc cft - 

, • -, > 5o5, 5do 

stantive clauses. j 

for adjective clauses.... 582-585 

for adverbial clauses 616 

of place 620, a 

of time 626, a, b 

of cause 637, 647, 654, 662 

of manner 671-674 

Connectives, co-ordinate 374-378 

subordinate 554-556 

Contiguity 646 

Contracted sentences, complex.. 689 

compound 756,757, 761, a, b 

syllogism 635 

Contrast 846, 856 

Co-ordinate, clauses 720-747 

combinations 18, 771 

conjunctions 374-330 

constructions 385-391, 397-403 

sentences 752 

paragraphs 753 

sections, chapters, etc., 755 

interrogative and responsive.. 758 



INDEX. 



Copula, 54, obs. ; 80, 89, 3, obs., 90, 1 

Copulative verb 90, 4; 302, 477 

oonjunctions 376, 7 

clauses 722, 724 

Correlative, 583, 2, a; 584, a; 616, 726 

Declarative sentence 6, 809 

Declension App. I« 

Defective sentence 811, a 

paragraph 929 

verb App. IV. 

Discourse 2 

direct and indirect 601 

Do, auxiliary 203, 205 

Ecphonesis 864 

(776, a; 780, 781, 783, 

Effectiveness \ 797, 800, 801, 802, 
( 808,810,821,842,870 

Elements, order of... { ^ ^jj 76 ' a '> 

of the same name 405 

of the first class 14, 46, A 

of the second class... 15, 46, B, 411 

of the third class 16, 46, C, 551 

simple, complex, j ._ 

and compound. J 

principal 24, a 

of the first class 49, 56 

of the second class 438 

of the third class 568 

subordinate... 24, a 

of the first class 226, 227 

of the second class 462, 473, 488 
of the third class... 580, 597, 615 

Ellipsis, contraction by 756 

figure of. 861, b 

of relatives, 
Embodiment of thought. 777, 778, 782 

Enthymeme 635, a 

Epigram 859 

Equality, comparison of. 5!4 

Erotesis 863 

Errors in constructions(seeCautions). 

Exclamation point 222 

Exclamatory sentences 6, 864 

Explanatory, use of apposition. 259 

adjective clauses 583, 2 

Expression, thought and j 786, d, 
the realm of grammar. J '" 807 

Feeling enters into thought... 778, c 

rSrt ed in }-™.«; 808,821 
Figures in construe- j 

tion of sentences, j 

in use of words 848-860 

Final clauses 654-656 



Expletive 444, a 

Foreign idioms 779, note 

Fo^ortheverb^-^f^V, 9 /; 

Gender 125-132 

Germ of thought 870 

Grammar, demands of. 807 

province of. 776, a, b; 821 

Habit (211, sug. 2,215, 779, a; 

* LaDir { 781, a, b; 829, 3 

Harmony 885, 886, 887 

Have, as auxiliary 203, 205 

Hyperbole 857 

Hyphen 223 

use of, in forma- 
tion of words. 



413, 



416, c 



Idiom, native and foreign.. 779, note 

Idiomatic phrase 418, 3 

Illative sentences 746, 747 

Imperative mode 182, 4 

tenses of. 200 

sentences 6, 808, a 

Impersonal verb App. II. 

Independent nominative.... 355, 356 
Indicative mode defined.... 177, 182, 1 

tenses, forms of 197 

Indirect, discourse 601 

object,. 295, 296, 307, 308, 473, 605 

Infinitive 201, 693, 701, 702 

as subject 439-442 

as predicate 454, 455 

as adjective element 465, a 

as object 474-476 

as part of double object.. 477-479 

without to... 480 

as adverbial element 505, 514 

Inflection, of noun J ... 105, 107, 108; 
or pronoun. j App. I. 

of verb... 165, 166,' 167, b. App. III. 

of adjective 151-158 

expressive of relation 37, 2 

by formative element.. 414, a, 4J5 

Innuendo 858, a 

Interjection 353 

Interpretation 797-799 

Interrogative, sentence 6 

rhetorical only 809, a 

pronouns 69, 4 

adverbs 330 

Intransitive verb 90, 3 

Inverted order.. 32, 2, 865, 876, 884, 2 

Irony 858 

Irregular verbs 91, 2 

list of App. IV. 



INDEX. 



It, peculiar use of... 



147, 6, 444, 570, 
a, 874; a, Ex. 



Language defined I 

means to a twofold end 777 

study of 730 

use of 800, 8!0 

Letter as subject 64, 4 

List of prepositions 424 

irregular verbs App. II. 

Logic, demands of 806 

province of. 776 a, b, 821 

language for 809 

Logical, subject 229 

predicate 289 

order 32, 1 

sentence 809 

analysis 81!, 2 

Long sentence 890, 2 

Loose sentence 839, 2 

May as auxiliary 203-205 

Melody 336 

Metaphor 050 

Metonomy 855 

Modal adverbs 328 

Mode, definition of 176 

number of 132 

W^;^ f 103, 2, !46, &, 225, 

Modlfier { 227, c, 230, 237 

Must as auxiliary 203-205 

Negative 54, obs., 323, a, 750, 761 

Nominative case 135, 136 

independent 355, 353 

absolute 699 

Noun, definition of. 64, 1 

classes of *. 69 

persons of 109-113 

number of. 116-121 

gender of 125-132 

case of, nominative 13^—136 

possessive 253-275 

objective 293-295 

declension of (App.) 

as subject 63, 69 

as attribute 79, 4 

in apposition 257-261 

participial 4!2, a, 704 

used as adjective... 231, 2, c, 416, c 

Number, of noun 116-121 

of verb 167, 168 

Object single 293, 473, 598 

double 302, 477, 605 

direct and indirect 294,295 

of preposition 427 

attributive 302, 477 



Object, position of. 32, a, 876, a 

infinitive as 474-476 

clause as 598 

Objective element 10, 2 

as a word 293 

as phrase 473 

as clause 597 

Omitted, article 283, 2 

subject 51, obs. 

preposition 524 

to (of inf ) 480 

Organization of thought 785 

Paragraph 4, 753, a, 925-929 

analysis of. 930 

Parsing 930, C, 4 

Participial noun 506, 691, 4, 704 

adjective 249 

construction 694-693, 717 

Participle, definition of. 79,2 

forms of 202 

as attributive 89, 2, 90, 5 

present, past, perfect 94 

active, passive 94 

Passive voice 174, 2, 175 

Past tense 194 

perfect tense 194 

Period, of time 139 

punctuation mark 222 

Periodic sentence 888, 889 

Person, of substantive 109, l!0 

of verb 167, 168 

Personal pronouns, use of..... Ill, 113 

declension of App. I. 

Personification, figure of. 538 

Phrase as an element. 46, B, 409-412 

formation of. 413-417 

kinds of 418,419 

partso- (with subs. base).. 420-428 

(with attr. base) 429-432 

as a whole 433-437 

as subject 439-445 

as predicate 454-456 

as adjective element 462-466 

as obj. element ) „, .,„ 

single object.} 473 ~ 476 

double object 477-481 

as adv. element general use of 438 

denoting place 491-494 

time 499, 500 

cause 504-506 

manner 509-516 

Pleonasm 883, 1 

Plural of nouns, definition 119 

formation of. 120, 121 

of verbs 167, 168 

Point, of time 188, a, b. 

in punctuation 222 



INDEX. 



Possessive 266-275 

Potential mode 132, 2 

Position 32, a, 874, 875 

Potential mode, tenses in 198 

Precision 837 

Predicate, denned 9, 2, 52 

ahvays attributive 54 

forms of 78-80 

nominative 147, a 

adjective 159 

grammatical and logical 288, 289 

Prefix 415, a 

Prepositions, definition of 422 

list of 424 

complex 424, a 

use of 425 

rule for 426 

classes of 428 

object of. 427 

omitted 524 

Present tense 188, 190, 194 

perfect tense 194 

Principal parts App. 

Process of synthe- ) _„ 

sis and analysis. / ' u 

for linguistic culture 780, b 

of embodying thought 782 

n ••■,-, ,J 785, 786, 

of organizing thought < ' , ' 

of uttering language 782 

of interpretation 799 

Prolixity 883, 1 

Pronoun, definition of. 64, 2 

declension of. App. I. 

personal 69,2, l!!-l!3 

compound personal 69, 2 

relative 69, 3 

cement of {3B=.^ r APP.V. 

Proposition, kinds of. 43, 1, 2, 3, 550 

abridged 688-704 

Propriety 837 

•DnW^ati^. J 222 ' 223 > 285 > C, 403, 

Punctuation | ^ ^ ^ > 
Purity 837 

Quotation, marks of. 223 

direct and indirect 601-604 

Qualities, of subject 55, 2 

of style 871-887 

of words 837, 1, 2, 3 

Quantity 5C9-5I3 

Radical, or root 413 

substantial and formative.. 414, a 

Realization of thought 800 

Redundant verb App. II. 

Regular verb 91, 1 



Relative, as a wordj l3 ' 3 3 'J 5 ' 3 1 ' 4] 2 ( J 

Relative, as adverb 47, 3, 329, 616, a 
as a pronoun... 36, 2, 69, 3, 582-589 

rule for 585 

case of 586 

of double construction 587 

Repetition 883, 1 

Rhetoric, province of... 776, a, b, 821 

demands of 808 

in language 810, b, c, 811, 3 

Root (see Radical). 

Rules of syntax App. V. 

Resemblance 846 

Section 4, 41, 755 

Semicolon 775 

Sentence, unit of discourse 3 

as a whole or in parts 6, 7, 42 

simple, complex, I 19 1 2 3 

compound. J ' ' ' 

complex 553, a, b 

compound 720 

interrogative and j 758-764 

responsive. J 

an expression 869 

a development 870 

unity of 872-878 

qualities of 871-887 

simplicity of 877 

clearness of 879, 880 

strength of. 882, 883, 884 

harmony of 885-887 

rhetorical classes of. 888-091 

defective 81!, a 

Short sentences 890, 1 

Simplicity of sentence 877, 873 

Shall and will as auxiliaries 205 

SimpJe, element... }'\\-*%%lf 

sentence 19, 1,49 

subject 228 

predicate 288 

Simile figure 848 

Spontaneity 778,797, 829. 870 

Study of language 780, b 

Style 871 

Subject, definition of. 9, 1, 51 

complex or logical 229 

as phrase 439 

as clause 570 

rule for 137 

position of 32, a 

of infinitive 477, a, b 

Subjunctive mode 182, 3 

tenses of (99 

Subordinate con- ] _. A T - TT __. 
nectives. 374, App. IV., 555 



10 



INDEX. 



Subordinate, rule for 556 

Subordinate f 8, 2, 10, 18, 2, 48, 225, 

elements, \ 226, 227, 290-295, 

first class. ( 317-320 

, , ) 462, 473, 488, 

second class } 5 30, 597, 615 

third class 551, 553-558 

how abridged 639-690 

Succession of sentences 753, 771 

(I, 64, 5, 137, a, 21!, 
.. 487, 755, 775, 776, 

Suggestions j 811,830,833,906; 

I App.V. 
Superlative degree of adjectives. 156 

of adverbs .' 332 

Syllable as subject 64, 4 

Syllogism 634 

contracted 635 

Symbols for elements 48,930, C 

Synecdoche 854 

Synthetic 39 

Tautology 883, 1 

Tense, definition of. 188 

present, past, future. (90, 194-200 

form of. 191, 192 

absolute and relative (93, 196 

Time 188, a, 189 

words for 323-325 

phrases for 499, 500 

clauses for 623-626 

To, omitted 480 

Transformation of [ __ 5 _ 80 » 

sentences. j ' ' 

Transitive verb 90, 2,296, 

Theme for composition 786, a 

Thought, realm of logic... 776, 806 

embodied 771, 1,782 

developed 784 

organization of. 785 

realization of 800 

not expressed 802 

Use of infinitive 454,455 



<"- ■<* — } 222 ™ 22 » 

Use of the period, etc 222 

of the semicolon 774 

Usage of words 835, 836 

Verb, defined 88 

classified 90, 91 

transitive 90, 2 

intransitive 90, 3 

copulative 90, 4 

regular and irregular 91 

list of irregular App. II. 

auxiliary 203-205 

defective, impersonal, ) A 7T 
and redundant. ' J App. II. 

number and person of. 167 

conjugation and) . TT 

principal parts of. j A PP' "" 

agreement with subject 168 

with co-ordinate terms 385 

Vision • 853, a 

Vivacity 883, 2 

Voice 173-175 



14, 46 



13 



What, double construction of... 587 
Will and shall as auxiliaries.... 205 
Words, as elements ) 
of the first class, j " 
as substantive, attribu 
tive, and relative, 
substantive noun or pronoun... 64 
attributive verb, parti- ) 7Q 

ciple, adjective. J '"' 

relative 35, 1, 2, 3 

combination of 23, 28 

complex use of. 36, 1, 2, a 

figurative use of. 842 

good usage of. 835, 836 

qualities of 837 

choice of. 827 

concrete, class-word, 
and abstract. 



s-word, { 



822-825 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



CHAPTER I. 
INTRODUCTION -GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 



Suggestion. — Chapter I. should not be attempted by those who have never 
studied grammar. Let the beginner commence with Chapter II. 



General Divisions of Discourse. 

1. Language is the medium through which we communi- 
cate our thoughts. 

2. Discourse is a continued series of thoughts, each 
expressed by an assemblage of words called a sentence. 

3. The Sentence is the unit of discourse, and contains a 
complete thought expressed by one principal proposition, 
or by a combination of propositions, one of which must be 
principal. 

4. A series of sentences relating to a single subject is 

called a Paragraph. In like manner, a series of paragraphs 

embracing a more comprehensive topic is called a Section ; 

a series of sections, a Chapter ; and so on to the highest 

divisions of discourse. 

li 



12 THE SENTENCE. 



The Sentence. 

5. The sentence may be considered as a whole, or in 
reference to its component parts. 

6. As a whole, a sentence may declare something, ask a 
question, express a command, or contain an exclamation. 

Examples. — Declarative. There are certain social principles in human nature, 
from which we may draw the most solid conclusions with respect to the conduct 
of individuals and communities. 

Interrogative. When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration 
of mankind, and impressed the deepest sentiment of fear on the hearts of her 
enemies ? 

Imperative. Shut now the volume of history, and tell me, on any principle of 
human probability, what shall be the fate of this handful of adventurers. 

Exclamatory. How different would have been our lot this day, both as men 
and women, had the Revolution failed of success ! 

7. The component parts of the sentence are the words, 
phrases, and clauses which enter into its structure and form 
its elements. 

8. A sentence may contain Jive distinct elements, — 

1. Two, called principal, because they are indispensable to its 
formation ; and — 

2. Three, called subordinate, because they depend upon these. 

Ex. — Coming — events — cast — their shadows — before. Observe the words in 
bold type are the principal elements, those in italics, the subordinate. 

9. The principal elements are, — 

1. The subject, or that of which something is affirmed or denied. 

Ex. — Roses bloom; virtue ennobles; men are mortal. 

2. The predicate, or that which is affirmed or denied. 

Ex. — The snoiv melts; the enemy will not prevail ; the time is coming. 

10. The subordinate elements are, — 

1. The adjective element, or that which is joined to the subject, 
or to any substantive to modify its meaning or its application. 

Ex. — The morning clouds have passed away. The laws of nature are uniform. 
Affix the seal of condemnation. 



FORM AND STATE OF THE ELEMENTS. 13 

2. The objective element, or that which is added to the transitive 
verb to complete its meaning. 

Ex.— Buy the truth and sell it not. Sound policy demands that privateering 
be prohibited. 

3. The adverbial element, or that which is added to the verb, or to 
any attributive to modify its meaning or its application. 

Ex. — Speak distinctly. They walked in the garden. He died when I was a 
child. This problem is very difficult. 



Form and State of the Elements. 

11. These five elements in their simplest state may take 
three forms, called the first, second, and third classes of the 
elements. 

Ex. — First Class. — Birds — fly; these — birds — fly — swiftly. 

Second Class. — Flocks — of birds — were flying — over the fields. 
Third Class. — Read much — thai you may write well. 

12. Every element must contain at least one word 
expressing a thought, in the form of a conception or idea; 
it may contain a word expressing a mere relation or limit- 
ation. 

(a.) Thus, in president of the senate, "president" and l ' senate" express concep- 
tions, while " of" expresses merely their relation to each other. 

13. A word is, — 

1. A substantive, when it expresses the conception of a substance 
or an object. 

Ex. — Snow, cloud, cave, Philadelphia, Socrates. 

2. An attributive, when it expresses the conception of an attribute 
of some object. 

Ex. — Wise, sitting, stands, walks, dormant. 

3. A relative or relation-word, when it shows the relation of two 
thoughts or ideas. 

Ex. — Of, in, by, is, can, that, which, when, where, etc. 

(a.) These terms are indicative of the general office of words, and will he 
found convenient in analysis. So intimate are the relations between substance 
and attribute that we cannot express one without involving the other ; for there 



1-i FORM AND STATE OF THE ELEMENTS. 

can be no substance witbout attributes ; nor can there be attributes without 
some substance to which they belong. As the one or the other predominates, 
the word is substantive or attributive. ^, 

M. An element of the first class is a single thought-word 
with or without inflection, standing for a conception and 
its relation. 

Ex. — Constant — boasting — always — betrays — incapacity. 

Observe, here, that each of the five elements is represented by a single word. 
No relation-word appears in the sentence. 

15. An element of the second class is a phrase contain- 
ing a thought-word with or without change of form, and 
another word to express its relation, both to be taken at 
first as one word. 

Ex. — The hero — of Buena Vista — was honored — by his countrymen. 

Observe, here, that in three of the elements the thought-words are put into 
their proper relations by means of the relatives "of," "was" and "by;" thus 
each group constitutes & phrase. 

16. An element of the third class is a proposition taken 
with or without a conjunctive word to express its relation. 

Ex. — It was a pleasant voice that spoke. My judgment approves this meas- 
ure, and my whole heart is in it. 

Observe, here, that each sentence has two propositions ; in the first that, and 
the second and, is the conjunctive word. In the first the clause, " that spoke," 
is to be regarded in analysis as a single word. 

17. An element is, — 

1. Simple, when it receives neither addition nor modification. 
Ex. — Walk — softy. Go — in haste. Read — that you may knoui. 

2. Complex, when the simple element, as principal or basis, is 
modified by the addition of some other element. 

Ex. — She had — an immense — opinion — of my cleverness — in the wood-engraving 
line. 

Observe, here, the objective element is complex, having opinion as its principal 
or basis ; and this is modified by the addition of an, immense, and of my clever- 
ness, etc. 

3. Compound, when, as a whole, it consists of two or more simple 
or complex elements in like construction joined together without modi- 
fying or governing each other. 



FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF COMBINATION. 15 

Ex. — Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. Mr. Brandon 
brought — the magic-lantern and a choice selection of slides. A proverb is — the 
wisdom of many and the wit of one. 



Fundamental Principles of Combination. 

18. Two elements are combined, — 

1. Co-ordinately, when they hold the same rank in construction, 
and are similar in form and character. 

Ex. — Wisdom and virtue; in city and in country ; strike and hear. 

2. Subordinately, when one stands as principal and the other is 
made subordinate to it, both being, in general, dissimilar in form and 
character. 

Ex. — A serene sky; the peak of Teneriffe; thoughis that breathe, and words 
that burn. 

19. A sentence is itself, — 

1. Simple, when it contains but one principal proposition. 
Ex. — The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 

2. Complex, when it contains at least one principal proposition, 
and has one or more propositions combined with it subordinately. 

Ex. — As we proceeded, we gradually lost sight of the traces of man. He 
liveth long who liveth well. 

3. Compound, when it contains at least two principal propositions 
combined co-ordinately. 

Ex. — Then, words have lost their power, rhetoric is vain, and all elaborate 
oratory, contemptible. 

20. The propositions of a complex or a compound sen- 
tence are called its clauses. 

21. A proposition is the combination of a subject and a 
predicate (8. 1). 

Ex. — The temple is a work of unrivalled art. 

22. A proposition is, — 

1. A sentence, when, independently and alone, it expresses a com- 
plete thought of the speaker. 

Ex. — The mists of the morn have passed away. Her suit is granted for her 
husband's sake. 



16 THE FOUR COMBINATIONS. 

2. An element of a sentence, when it expresses an organic part 
of the principal thought. 

Ex. — Though I cannot teach courage, I must not learn cowardice. Speak, so 
that you can be heard. 

(a.) Observe that a sentence must contain a proposition, but a proposition is 
not necessarily a sentence; as, for example, though I cannot teach courage — -so 
that you may be heard, are propositions, but not sentences. 



The Four Combinations. 

23. There may he four distinct combinations in any prop- 
osition, namely : the predicative, the adjective or attributive, 
the objective, and the adverbial. Two of these have the 
substantive as principal, and two, the attributive (13). 

24. The predicative combination has a substantive (as 
subject) for the principal, and an attributive (as predicate) 
affirmed or denied of it, to express a statement, an inquiry, 
a command, or an exclamation. 

Ex. — The wind blows. The ice does not melt. Where is the landlord ? 
Give to the poor. What a career he is running ! 

(a.) This is the principal combination, — the only one that forms a proposition. 
It is the central group in every sentence. The others are combinations, either 
directly or indirectly, with the two terms which compose it. 

Combinations with the subject form the adjective element; with the predicate, 
the objective or the adverbial element. 

25. The adjective (attributive) combination has a sub- 
stantive for the principal and an attributive, or a sub- 
stantive used attributively, assumed of it to modify either 
its meaning or the extent of its application. 

Ex. — A contented mind. A scene of beauty. Robert's farm. Paul, the 
apostle. 

(a.) Whenever one substantive is made subordinate to another, the form r 
assumes another character, and is used attributively or adjeetively, — since it 
performs the office of an adjective. Thus, the noun as attribute, in apposition, 
or in the possessive, is used as an adjective element; as, for example, "apostle,'' 
in Peter, the apostle, or "king's," in The king's domain. 

26. The objective combination has an attributive in the 



THE FOUR COMBINATIONS. 17 

form of a transitive verb for its principal, and a sub- 
stantive added subordinately to complete its meaning. 

Ex. — He has made a mistake. The angry waves dashed the vessel against the 
rocks. 

27. The object, in the sentence, taken in its widest 
sense, is the name of any person or thing set over against 
(ob-jectus) the subject. 

(a.) In the strict grammatical sense, it denotes (1) that person or thing which 
receives the direct effect of the subject's action ; (2) that which the action produces 
in the object, or that which the object becomes by virtue of the action ; (3) that 
to or for which, or out of which, the action tends. Thus, in " eating fruit," the 
object is direct; but in " the fruit made the boy sick," " the party appointed the 
tallest man their leader," we have a direct effect, and a result or product of the 
action; in "he gave me a dollar," we have a direct object and another toward 
which the action tends. 

28. The adverbial combination has an attributive for its 
principal, and either another attributive, or a substantive 
added subordinately, to limit its meaning by denoting its 
degree of intensity, time, place, manner, cause, condition, or 
some other circumstance respecting it. 

Ex. — He has decided wisely. Act with discretion. Come to-morroiv. They 
went too soon. They went by the boat. I walked in the garden. She will 
return in a few days. 

(a.) It is to be noticed here, as in (25. a.), that when an element of the 
same name (an attributive with an attributive) is combined subordinately with 
another, the latter changes both its name and character. Thus, swift added to a 
substantive is an attributive, as in swift winds, sivifl horses : but when added to 
another attributive, it becomes adverbial; as in "the winds move swift-ly," 
"they searched careful-ly " —" they made careful search." So, again, when a 
substantive is added subordinately to an attributive, except in the cases above 
(27. a.), it expresses with or without a preposition some adverbial meaning. 

(6.) It is also to be noticed that the first form of the adverbial combination 
(an attributive with an attributive) is in no sense (either the widest or the 
narrowest) objective. It has no reference to any object whatever, apart from the 
subject, but all pertains to the subject; it is not an objective combination. When 
we say, "the bird is flying swiftly." "swiftly" intensifies "flying," and flying, 
thus intensified, is an attribute of the subject " bird." When a substantive is com- 
bined with an attributive so as to express an adverbial meaning, the combination 
may in the most general sense be called objective, but should be regarded as 
adverbial. 

2* 



18 RELATIONS, CO-ORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE. 

29. In co-ordinate combinations, the terms have no 
governing influence over each other ; but in subordinate 
combinations, the principal term controls the forms (case. 
number, etc.) of the subordinate ; at the same time, the 
subordinate modifies the meaning and application of the 
principal. 

Ex. — I am writing. Charles's horse. We met him. 



Relations, Co-ordinate and Subordinate. 

30. Relation has no existence as a thing by itself; neither 
has it an existence in any one thing alone, but between two 
things. 

(a.) Even though it does not exist in either of the combined elements., it may 
manifest itself by causing an inflection of one of them. The modifying term is 
not the relation, but by the idiom of the language may be made to show that a 
relation exists not in itself, but between it and another term. 

31. The relation of two elements determines the charac- 
ter of their combination, and is, — 

1. Co-ordinate, when they have the same rank in construction, and 
are similar in character and form. 

Ex. — Clearness, force, and earnestness are the qualities which produce convic- 
tion. Poor and content is rich, and rich enough. 

2. Subordinate, when they have not the same rank in construction, 
and are dissimilar in character, and often in form. 

Ex. — Our dead are never dead to us until ice have forgotten them. Be silent 
that you may hear. The gay will laugh lohen thou art gone. When he rose, 
every sound was hushed. I know why you lent the umbrella. 

32. There are two kinds or orders of arrangement, 
namely, — 

1. The logical order, or that in which the 'principal element pre- 
cedes the subordinate. 

2. The inverted order, or that in which the subordinate element 
precedes the principal. 

Ex. — Logical order. — Flowers blnnm. Peter, the hermit. Buy the truth. 
Inverted order. — Come ye. Good news. Quietly sitting. 



RELATIONS, CO-ORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE. 19 

(a.) Either order becomes "natural" when universal usage establishes it. 
Thus, in English the logical order in the predicative, objective, and adverbial 
combinations is the natural order ; equally natural is the inverted order in the 
adjective combination " good news." Either seems inverted when, for poetic or 
rhetorical effect, the customary order is changed. In certain forms of the 
adjective combination, as, for example, the case of apposition, the adjective phrase 
or clause, the logical order prevails; and in certain constructions the inverted 
order is the true arrangement for the predicative, objective, and adverbial 
combinations. 

Ex. — Why stand ye here idle ? The message which he sent. He often fails. 

33. In combining elements, we must distinguish not 
only the elements themselves, but also the words which 
enter into them. 

(a.) By a fundamental law of the mind every object of thought must be 
regarded as substance or attribute, and, hence, every thought-word is a, substantive 
or an attributive. By a fundamental law of combining words, a substantive 
joined subordinately to a substantive becomes virtually attributive or adjective 
(25. a), and an attributive joined subordinately to an attributive becomes 
adverbial (28. a). Hence, — 

34. All words expressing thought alone are substantive, 
adjective, or adverbial. 

(a.) No sentence can have any other materials for its thoughts ; it may have 
other words to denote relations. 

35. All words employed to show the subordinate relations 
in any of the four combinations are, — 

1. Auxiliaries, or verbal words to show the relation of the attribute 
to the subject in the predicative combination. 

Ex. — They have laid down their arms. It doth appear you are a worthy 
judge. All men are mortal. 

2. Prepositions, to show the relation of the subordinate object to 
its principal or antecedent, in the adjective and adverbial combinations. 

Ex. — The life of all truly great men has been a life of intense and incessant 
labor. Go in peace. 

3. Conjunctive words, to show the relation of the subordinate 
'proposition to its principal or antecedent. 

Ex. — He is a miracle of genius because he is a miracle of labor. 
(a.) A special kind of conjunction called co-ordinate, is used for all co-ordi- 
nate terms. 



20 MODES OF EXPRESSING RELATION. 

36. Besides these, two kinds of words express both 
thought and relation at once, namely, — 

1. The verb, which combines in one word both the attribute and its 
predicative relation to the subject. 

Ex. — Time— -flies. We — went. They — ride. 

2. The pronoun, which takes the place of the substantive, to show 
its relation to the speaker, the hearer, or to some object previously 
named. 

Ex. — I, the President of the United States, issue this proclamation. My son, 
thou art ever with me. 
(a.) Thus, we have, — 

1. Simple thought-words: (a.) Substantives or nouns, common, proper, collective, 
and abstract ; (b.) attributives, adjectives, and participles. 

2. Simple relation-words : auxiliaries, prepositions, and all conjunctive words. 

3. Complex words, combining both thought and relation: verbs and pronouns. 



Modes of Expressing Relation. 

37. The relation of two combined elements to each 
other may be expressed, — 

1. By the position of the terms. 

Ex. — Good food. Reading Virgil. King George. 

2. By position and inflection combined. 

Ex. — The king's crown. He sits. Defending us. 

3. By a word used as exponent of the relation. 

Ex. — Order — of — exercises. The night— pis — dark. We — shall — ride. 

38. The relation of the entire thought to the speaker, 
hearer, or to some party already named is denoted not by 
position or inflection, but by the substitution of a word 
(a pronoun) for the object in its relation. 

39. A language is called,— 

1. Synthetic, when the relations are indicated in a great measure 
by inflection of the thought-words, and not by words of relation. 

2. Analytic, when the thoughts and their relations are expressed 
chiefly by separate words. 



SUCCESSIVE STEPS IN ANALYSIS. 21 

(a.) The Latin and the Greek are synthetic languages. The English is in a 
high degree analytic. Thus, the Latin word monucrim is in English I— may — 
have — advised. 



Successive Steps in Analysis. 

40. Every discourse is supposed to be addressed to 
some party whose name or title is called the compellative. 

Ex. — My lords, this is a most exquisite dilemma, from which there is no 
escaping. 

41. Every discourse is to be regarded first as a whole, 
and then separated into its highest co-ordinate divisions. 
These, in turn, are to be separated into the next lower 
divisions, and so on, till, after passing down through Part, 
Chapter, Section, and Paragraph, we reach the Sentence. 

42. Every sentence, taken as a whole, is the expression 
of a complete thought, and is to be classified according to 
the nature of the thought (6). 

43. Since every sentence is a proposition or a combi- 
nation of propositions, it must be, — 

1. A principal proposition alone, and hence a simple sentence, or 

2. A principal proposition, having in one of its elements a subordi- 
nate proposition, and hence a complex sentence, or 

3. A principal proposition, having in co-ordinate combination with 
it another principal proposition, and hence a compound sentence. 

44. Every proposition, principal or subordinate, — 

1. Must have the predicative combination containing the principal 
elements, the subject and the predicate, and — 

2. May have any or all of the other combinations containing the 
subordinate elements, the adjective, the objective, or the adverbial. 

Ex. — Trees — grow. Ice — melts. Stars — shine. Some — men — prosper. In- 
dustrious — pupils — easily — master — their lessons. 

45. Every combination has, — 

1. Two elements expressing conceptions or thoughts, and — 



22 SUCCESSIVE STEPS IN ANALYSIS. 

2. A relation between them, predicative, adjective, objective, or 
adverbial, showing the nature of their union ; it may be shown in one 
of three ways (35). 

46. Every element is either principal or subordinate, and 
may be, — 

A. 1. A word (simple), substantive, adjective, or adverbial, — (mixed) 
a verb, or pronoun, — a simple element, first class. 

2. A word, as the basis or principal of a complex element, of the 
first class, the whole being substantive, adjective or adverbial. 

Observe, in this case, the added word becomes subordinate to the basis forming 
new combinations with relations ; as, in (34) above, and is itseli substantive, 
adjective, or adverbial. 

3. A word co-ordinately combined with another word of the 
same rank, both forming a compound element of the first class, the 
whole being substantive, adjective, or adverbial. 

Observe, here, that the compound element may be either the principal or the 
subordinate term of any one of the four combinations ; as, You and I — write. 
He — reads and writes. She plays — correctly and elegantly. 

B. 1. A phrase alone taken as one word, substantive, adjective, or 
adverbial, — a simple element, second class. 

2. A phrase as basis of a complex element of the second class, the 
whole being substantive, adjective, or adverbial. 

3. A phrase in co-ordinate union with another phrase of the same 
character and rank, forming a compound element of the second class. 

C. 1. A clause alone, consisting of the predicative combination 
taken as one word, substantive, adjective, or adverbial, — a simple ele- 
ment, third class. 

2. A clause having the predicative combinations as basis of a com- 
plex element of the third class. 

3. A clause in co-ordinate union with another clause of the same 
rank and character, forming a compound element of the third class. 

47. Every word is, — 

1. A pure substantive, that is, a noun, common, proper, collective, or 
abstract; or a mixed substantive, that is, pronoun, personal, relative, 
or interrogative. 



SUCCESSIVE STEPS IN ANALYSIS. 



2. A pure attributive, that is, an adjective, limiting or qualifying, a 
participle, preset, past, active, passive ; or a mixed attributive, that 
is, a finite verb, transitive, intransitive, or copulative. 

3. A pure relative, that is, a simple auxiliary, preposition or con- 
junctive word; or a mixed relative, that is, the relative pronouns, and 
relative or conjunctive adverbs, and some of the auxiliaries and prepo- 
sitions. 

(a.) This includes all possible parts of speech except the interjection. That, 
being a mere expression of emotion, and not of thought or the relation of thought, 
is not regarded as a part of speech. 

48. The entire sentence and its several elements may be 
represented by a system of significant symbols. 

(a.) No system can be devised to represent all the subtle distinctions of 
thought, and consequently no attempt is made to meet every emergency. It is 
proposed to show in a condensed form, the general features of any sentence. 

1. With the exception of V, taking the initial letters of the elements, 
capitals for the principal elements and small letters for the subordinate, 
we have S for subject, P for predicate, a, 0, Vj respectively for the 
adjective, objective, and adverbial elements. 

2. Then, as there are four distinct combinations, and two elements 
must enter in as factors of each, we readily make up these by uniting 
their symbols as factors ; as follows, — 

S P = Predicative combination. — Birds fly. Ice melts. "Who comes ? 
a S = Attributive combination. — White birds. Cold ice. John's book. 
P 0— Objective combination. — Eats bread. Gives me. Finding fault. 
r V =z Adverbial combination. — Runs swiftly. Come now. Stop there, 
(a.) Then, by bringing these combinations together, we may have the simple 
sentence in any form, first with elements of the first class. Thus, Those birds 

fly =3. o P 5 Red squirrels eat nuts=a S Po > an( l 3. S P { o = Red squirrels 
eat nuts greedily. 

(6.) "When an element occurs twice or more, and has the same form or class, 
let 2, 3, 4, etc., be placed before it in the manner of a co-efficient. Thus, Those 

large red cherries tempt us =3 a S P 0- 

3. As there are three distinct forms or classes of the elements, we 
have only to place the exponents 1, 2, 3, over the symbol to indicate its 
class. 

(a.) Thus, S P = Birds fly. S P = Birds are bipeds. To steal is base = 
O P • That the earth revolves on its axis is satisfactorily demonstrated = 



24 SUCCESSIVE STEPS IN ANALYSIS. 

O P V 1 - The man of high aims will carefully avoid all contaminating associ- 
ations =a 2 -S P -o- Here two of the subordinate elements, £1 and ()• are com- 
plex. To avoid confusion in the representation, it will be best generally not to 
mark this state of the subordinate elements; yet it can easily be done whenever 
desirable, as it will be when some prominent element, as a clause, is involved. 

In the sentence above we may indicate the parts thus: = a S 2 j O P iO^a '■> or 

a 9 {O i io ; then, put for a > acl , for Q> 02a, thus drawing off the complex 
elements and representing them separately. The insults of a witty man mortify 

that secret pride which no human breast is free from = ! 2 |S PoTa 3 * 
Observe in subordinate elements that the lower degree of subordination is indi- 
cated by the smaller type, and hence the arrangement will always be logical, 
whether the symbol be On the one or the Other side of the superior term. To 

follow the order in the sentence, the objective element would be = 2a0a 3 , but it 

is better to bring into immediate relation with P, 

(6.) Observe, also, when an element has no exponent, it is always of the first 
class. When an element is double, as in the attribute or object after copulative 

verbs, write the symbol twice. She walked a queen = S P P They called 
him doctor = S P 0- When the attribute of the predicate is a phrase or a 
clause, there are really two relation-words. For simplicity it is best to symbol- 
ize them as if there were but one. Thus : He is in haste = o P • ^7 desire 
is that you may return safely = a S P • 

4. Compound elements and compound sentences may be readily 
represented by placing the symbol + between the co-ordinate parts 
and placing them in a parenthesis. 

(a.) Thus : Day and night succeed each other =(S + S) P 0- The stars 
rise and set — a S (P + \>- Hi like manner we may have (a" + cf ) O P > 
S P (0 3 + 3 ) 5 S P 2 (a + a) The sentence, Wit is a shining quality 
that everybody admires ; most people aim at it, all people fear it, and few love 

it unless in themselves = (S P 2 & + aS P V 2 I + aS Po + S PS?)- 

(6.) The symbols may be read thus: For S = horses, read, The subject is, 
horses. For a S == White horses, read, The complex subject is — white horses. 
For o P == virtue ennobles, read the proposition is — Virtue ennobles. For 
= him a tyrant, read — the double object is, etc. The teacher will easily dis- 
cover a system of reading which will readily interpret the symbols. In the 
second chapter, though many of the predicates are of the second class, they will 
not be indicated as such. In the remaining chapters the learner will be sufficiently 
acquainted with connectives or auxiliaries to appreciate the marking. These 
symbols can easily be put upon the slate or blackboard. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE-ELEMENTS OF THE 
FIRST CLASS. 



SECTION I. 

PROPOSITIONS.— PREDICATIVE COMBINATIONS.— PRINCIPAL 
ELEMENTS. 

Unmodified Propositions. 

49. The simplest possible proposition is the combination 
of a subject and a predicate, each consisting of a single 
word. 

Ex.— Birds sing. It rains. Co (thou). Who comes? What/eZZ? 

50. The thought expressed by the combination is, — 

1. Declarative, when the proposition is a statement. 

2. Interrogative, when it asks a question. 

3. Imperative, when it expresses a command. 

4. Exclamatory, when it denotes an exclamation. 

51. The subject represents that of which something is 
affirmed or denied. 

Ex.— Winds— blow. Go (ye) not. Who—came? Strike (thou) ! 

Observe, that the subject is omitted or understood in imperative and some- 
times in other propositions. 

52. The predicate represents that which is affirmed or 
denied of the subject. 

Ex. — Snow — melts. Fishes — swim. Stand — (ye). Which— arose? 
Observe, that the subject, as the superior term, is put in dark type, while the 
predicate is in Italics ; also, that tbe two, as single words, represent separate ideas 
3 25 



26 UNMODIFIED DUO POSITIONS. 

or thoughts, but combined, express the one thought which is the statement, the 
question, the command, or the exclamation. The term affirm or deny applies to 
any of these combinations. 

53. The subject is ' always substantive ; that is, it ex- 
presses that which the mind regards as a substance or an 
object. 

Ex. — Stars shine. Leaves fall. I come. He writes. Walking fatigues. 
Substantive as a general term includes nouns, pronouns, and any expression 
whatever that is used to denote a thing or thought by itself. 

54. The predicate is always attributive ; that is, it expresses 
that which the mind regards as some attribute of an object. 

Ex. — They walk. Jane is sick. He is running. Is he a teacher f 
Observe, here, when the attribute has in itself the power to affirm, as in the 
first example (36. 1), it is a verb ; otherwise, as in the other examples, it is 
expressed by a word called the attribute, and the affirmation is made by a 
peculiar verb, called the copula. When the attribute is a substantive, it is a sub- 
stantive used attributively (25. a). Though the two together form a phrase, we 
shall find it convenient to discuss them in part in this chapter. When the predi- 
cate denies something of the subject, some negative word, as not, is joined to the 
verb: " The man is not rich." 

55. Of a subject we may predicate, — 

1. Action, or what it does, or what is done to it. 

Ex. — Birds fly. Fishes sivim. Wood is burned. Grass is cut. 

2. Quality, that is, those qualities, properties, and modes of existence 
which belong to or pertain to it. 

Ex. — Sugar is sweet. Oranges are yellow. Cherries are round. 

3. Class, or the higher group of objects to which it belongs. 

Ex. — Wheat is a vegetable. Horses are quadrupeds. Mastiffs are dogs. Men 
are animals. 

Observe, that vegetable includes icheat and many other classes of objects. 

4. State, or the condition in which it is. 

Ex. — The child sleeps. Mice are dormant. James is in haste. 
Observe, that the substantive, an noun or p>rowoun, the verb, the adjective, or the 
participle are most commonly used for this combination. 

56. The subject and the predicate form the principal 
elements of the sentence. 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS, AND EXERCISES. 27 

Models for Analysis, and Exercises. 

57. Examine carefully the following models for analyzing 
an unmodified proposition : — 

Birds fly .... is a proposition, because it contains a subject and a 
predicate, and makes a statement (49). 

Birds is the subject, because it represents that of which the 

action (55. 1), " fly," is affirmed. 

Fly is the predicate, because it expresses the action affirmed 

of "birds." 

Is snow white ? is a proposition, because it contains a subject and a 
predicate, and makes an inquiry (50. 2). 

Snow is the subject, because it is that of which the quality 

(55. 2), " white," is asked. 

Is white .... is the predicate, because it expresses the quality asked 
for. "Is" is the verb or copula, and "white" is the 
attribute. 

Gold is a metal is a proposition, because it contains a subject and a 

predicate, and makes a statement. 
Gold is the subject, because it expresses that of which the 

higher class (55. 3) metal is affirmed. 

Is a metal ... is the predicate, because it denotes the class which is 
affirmed of "gold." "Is" is the verb, and "metal," 
the attribute. 

Wait [thou] . . is a proposition, because it contains a subject and a 
predicate, and expresses a command. 

Thou (understood) is the subject. Why? 

Wait is the predicate, because it expresses the action which 

is affirmed (commanded). 

Begone ! ... is a proposition, because it contains a subject and a 
predicate. 

Thou (understood) is the subject. Why? 

Begone .... is the predicate, because it represents that which is 
affirmed ; i. e. commanded with strong emotion. Be is 
the copula, and gone is the attribute. 



28 MODELS FOR ANALYSIS, AND EXERCISES. 

58. Analyze the following propositions according to the 
models : — 

Brutus determined. George was conscious. Stars shine. Writers 
differ. Trees are plants. Virtue ennobles. Wisdom directs. Caesar 
conquered. Kings reign. Richard was bold. Nero was cruel. Socra- 
tes was a philosopher. Who comes? Strike. Be active. Alas! 
(47. a) he falls. Shall we write? What happens? What is this? 

It will aid the learner to use symbols for this and other combinations. 
Thus, let S stand for the subject and P for the predicate (48) ; then the 
two together will be S P. Thus, " writers differ" = S P ; S = writers, 
and P = differ. To be read, — The subject is writers, and the predicate 
is differs. 

59. Predicate action (55.1) of the following subjects: — 

Horses, water, eagles, whales, quadrupeds, Columbus, Washing- 
ton, father, mother, insects, wind, stars, children, fire, rain, leaves, 
grass, time, robbers, armies, moon, George, kings, wasps, acorns. 

Ex. — Horses run. Water flows. 

60. Predicate quality (55.2) of the following nouns: — 

Life, peaches, ice, play, arithmetic, cloth, chairs, money, health, 
intemperance, history, darkness, morning, wisdom, fruit, clothing, 
ink, grass, sky, cherries, silver, fruit, soldiers, labor, wool, Mary. 

Ex. — Life is short. Peaches are ripe. 

61. Predicate some higher class to which the following 
subjects belong : — 

Henry, lemons, ducks, lilies, city, dogs, trout, lions, lead, 
sheep, marbles, knives, air, Peter, Stephen, David. 
Ex. — Henry is a scholar. Lemons are fruit. 

62. Let the pupil select the subjects a,nd predicates of each 
sentence from the following complete sentences, and, tell whether 
action, quality, or class is predicated : — 

Frank has left the city. The plums are ripe. Will the ship sail to- 
morrow? William lives in Boston. Napoleon was emperor of the 
French. Henry of Navarre was assassinated. Franklin was indus- 
trious. Washington Allston was a famous painter. The boy sprang 
to his feet. I, Paul, myself am a prisoner. 



THE SUBJECT AND ITS VARIETIES. 29 



The Subject and its Varieties. 

63. The subject may take any of the forms of the sub* 
stantlve. 

Observe, that no mere attributive can form the subject. We cannot say, 
" convenient is to be studied," because convenient is an attributive. Convert it 
into the substantive, convenience, and that may become the subject. So, wise, 
good, lawless, may be turned into the substantives, the wise, the good, the laivlcss, 
and thus become subjects. 

61. The substantive is,— 

1. A noun, when it is the name of an object. 
Ex. — George, Boston, man, house, flock, virtue. 

2. A pronoun, when it takes the place of a noun in order to refer to 
some object already named, or to the person who is speaker or hearer, 
even though not named. 

Ex. — When Henry had finished his letter, he sent it to the office, /(the 
speaker — name not necessarily known) ask you (the hearer — he may be a 
stranger) to record your name. The trees which (= trees) were cut have decayed. 
Who (name not known) is there ? 

3. An attributive used as a noun, or converted into a noun. 

Ex. — The poor, the feeble, fruitful-ness, patien(t)ce, tru(e)th; also, walking, 
m " ivalking is agreeable ;" in like manner, riding, or to walk, to ride. 

4. A word, letter, syllable, or symbol, when taken as the thing 
itself, and not in reference to its signification. 

Ex. — Is is a verb. A is a vowel. Un is a prefix. X is the sign of multipli- 
cation. (?) is the sign of interrogation. 

5. A phrase or clause used to name a thought. 

Ex. — To be or not to be, that is the question. That the wave theory best 
accounts for the facts in Optics is now generally acknowledged. 

Suggestion. — As the purpose of these exercises is culture as well as the 
marking of grammatical distinctions, the teacher should not fail to direct attention 
to the thoughts expressed, as well as to the expressions which embody them. 

If the learner does not readily make the distinction between object and 
attribute, a few simple illustrations with familiar objects will make it plain. If 
in his sentences he inserts other than the predicative combinations, as he will 
and should do for the. sake of completeness, the teacher will draw special atten- 
tion in Section I. to this combination only. 
3* 



30 CLASSES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Exercise upon the Classes of Substantives. 

65. In the following sentences select the subjects and the 
predicates , and tell which subjects are nouns, which pronouns, 
which attributives used as nouns. 

Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. Their prince is a man of 
learning and virtue. One common right the great and lowly claim. 
Matter is not indued with self-motion. This little brand will serve to 
light your fire. We are engaged in war ; the Secretary of State calls 
on the colonies to contribute. • The opening of the wooded glade gave 
them a view of the castle. The good will be rewarded. 

66. Write short sentences and describe some object, as 
a shower, a ride, a garden, and let the thoughts be so con- 
nected as to require pronouns or substantives of reference. 

Ex. — The stranger came to the door. He inquired the way to the nearest inn. 
/observed an expression of sadness in his countenance, etc., etc. 

67. Construct short sentences, and employ as subjects the 
following attributives (64.3); rich, brave, cool, virtuous, 
wise, skating, laughing; also Boston, good, is, -j-, ; a, 
m, — as mere words, signs, or letters. 

68. Point out the subjects and predicates in 66 and 67, 
and classify them. 



Classes of Nouns and Pronouns. 

69. The subject may be a noun or a pronoun in any of 

the following classes : — 



NOUNS. 

1. Nouns are divided into two 
classes, — proper arid common. 

2. A proper noun is the name 
of an individual object. 

Ex. — James. Erie. 



PRONOUNS. 

1. Pronoun9 are divided into 
three classes, — personal, relative, 
and interrogative. 

2. A personal pronoun is used 
to represent a noun, and to show 



SEVERAL KINDS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 



31 



NOUNS. 

3. A common noun is a name 
which applies to each individual 
of a class of objects. 

Ex. — Man, boy, house. 

Under the head of common nouns 
are commonly reckoned collective, ab- 
stract, and verbal nouns. 

4. A collective noun is one 
which, in the singular, denotes 
more than one object. 

Ex. — Army, family, flock. 

5. An abstract noun is the 
name of a property considered 
apart from the object to which it 
belong 

Ex. — Goodness, virtue, wisdom. 

6. A verbal noun is & participle 
used as a noun. 

Ex. — He was convicted of stealing. 
The infinitive is a kind of verbal 
noun. 

Ex. — To see the sun is pleasant. 

7. A phrase or an entire propo- 
sition may be used as a noun. 

Ex. — From Boston to Providence is 
a pleasant route. That you have 
wronged vie doth appear in this. 



PRONOUNS. 

its reference to the first, second, or 
third person. 

Ex. — I, — ive. Thou, — ye or you. 
He, she or it, — they. 

When self or selves is added to the 
personal pronouns, they are called 
compound personal pronouns. 

Ex. — Myself, thyself, himself. 

These seldom, if ever, are used as 
the subject ; they may be in apposition 
with the subject. (For full treatment 
of the pronouns see Greene's English 
Grammar.) 

3. A relative pronoun is used 
both to represent a preceding noun 
or pronoun, called the antecedent, 
and to connect with it a dependent 
proposition. 

Ex. — Who, whose, whom; which l 
that, what. 

When ever, so, or soever is added to 
the simple relatives, they are called 
compound relative pronouns; as, Who- 
ever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, 
whichsoever, whatever, ichatsoever. 

4. An interrogative pronoun is 
used both to represent a noun 
and to ask a question. 

Ex.— Who? Which? What? 



Exercise upon the several kinds of Nouns and Pronouns. 

70. Mliat pronouns should represent the following nouns f 
James, Charles, Mary, brothers, sisters, citizens, teacher; 
(1) as speaker ; (2) as hearer ; (3) as spoken of. 

Ex. — James — 7 (as speaker); you (as hearer); he (as spoken of). 



71. Write or speak sentences in which a personal pronoun, 



32 SEVERAL KINDS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

as subject,shall take the place of each of them, — (1) as speaker; 
(2) as hearer; (3) as party spoken of. 

72. lVIiat pronouns as subjects should take the place of 

earth, Moses, fisher, cherries, virtue, snow? Give the 
sentences — (1) as statements; (2) as inquiries. 

Ex. Earth — It is a ball. What turns on its axis daily ? 

Observe, the relative pronoun is never used in a simple sentence. Notice, 
also, that when the noun means more than one, or stands for a male, female, or 
neither, the pronoun takes a form to represent these distinctions. 

73. Which of the following nouns are proper? common f 
collective f abstract f verbal f — London, Amsterdam, men, 
wealth, herd, Socrates, wolf, hen, goodness, a writing, 
mercy, committee, senate, kingdom. 

74. Put pronouns for each, and tell whether your pro- 
noun is personal or interrogative. 

75. Analyze the following propositions, and tell which sub- 
jects are proper, which are common, and which are col- 
lective nouns: — 

Alexander conquered. Zeno was a philosopher. Gray was a poet. 
Orders were issued. Snow falls. Temperance is a virtue. Waves 
dash. Darkness prevails. The army marched. The school was dis- 
missed. The council was divided. Wrestling is dangerous. Lying 
is wicked. Charles reads. Age overtakes. Poets sing. Winds blow. 

76. Write subjects to the following predicates : — 

Proper Nouns. Is able; was prevented; believes; sings; dances; 
plays ; is a merchant ; is a teacher ; is delighted ; must come ; is 
honorable ; is — faithful ? 

Ex. — Samuel is able. 

Common Nouns. Run ; is content ; is laudable ; is pleasant ; is 
consumed ; can live ; write ; are trees ; are birds ; are fishes ; is 
desirable; is — contemptible? 

Ex. — Horses run. 



THE PREDICATE AND ITS VARIETIES. 33 

Collective Nouns. Was divided ; was convened ; were pleased ; was 
defeated ; was dismissed. 
Ex. — The school was divided. 

77. Put pronouns for each. 

The Predicate and its Varieties. 

78. The predicate may take any of the forms of the 
attributive. 

Observe, that while the mere attributive cannot form the subject, the sub- 
stantive as such may be the subject, and when used attributively with,, the 
copula may lorm the predicate. The learner will discover in time that the noun 
becomes common only by virtue of attributes which each and every individual 
in a class has in common (see 13.3. a). Hence, when we use a substantive 
attributively, we direct attention more especially to these characteristic attributes. 
Thus, Milton the poet, means that Milton who had the poetic attributes. 

79. The attributive is, — 

1. A verb, a^word which combines in itself both the copula and the 
attribute. 

Ex. — Smg, meditate, plead, inquire, xuallc. 

Observe, in this case, the attribute is that of action (55. 1). 

2. A participle, a word derived from the verb; it is the verb 
without the power of predicating. 

Ex. — Riding, rode, having rode. Reading, read, having read. He is read- 
ing, he has read. 

Observe, the copula must be prefixed to make the affirmation; and as it vir- 
tually restores the original form, the two together are called the verb. 

3. An adjective, a word used to express quality, state, or limitation. 

Ex. — Usejul, attractive, cold, strong, feeble, true, this. 
Here, also, the copula must be prefixed, and the two together form the predi- 
cate, but as parts ol speech they must be taken separately. 

4. A substantive, used attributively. 

Ex. — Man, horses, trees, fruit, gold, as in " This is the man." " Those ani- 
mals are horses.''' " Oaks are trees." 

(a.) In this case the copula is needed to form the predicate, and the two must 
be taken together as predicates, and separately as parts of speech. Since the 
copula is a verb of incomplete predication, the general rule for forming the 
predicate is as follows : — 



34 EXERCISES UPON THE CLASSES OF ATTRIBUTES. 

80. The predicate is either a verb of complete predi- 
cation, or it is a substantive, an adjective, or a participle 
used with the copula to complete the predication. 

Exercises upon the Classes of Attributes. 

81. In the following examples, select the subjects and the 
predicates, and tell ivhich predicates are verbs alone, and 
which have the verb (copula), and, a participle, an adjective, 
or a substantive. 

The preacher was eloquent. Alice is riding to school (79. 2. obs.). 
The apple tree is loaded with fruit. The swallow skims through the 
air. Shakespeare lived in the reign of Elizabeth. She is my cousin. 
Thomas Jefferson was President. Such conduct is noble. Who is 
ready? Be watchful. 

82. Predicate action by using the verb either in the com- 
bined form, or as copula and participle, and, use as subjects 
men, elepliants, plants, ships, the hound, the tortoise. 

83. Predicate quality or state of snow, water, houses, 
meadows, and peaches. 

84. Predicate some higher class, to which wolves, gold, 
Berlin, England, Good Hope, Amazon, monarchy, republic, 
belong, a,nd analyze your propositions ; also, predicate the 
identity (the sameness of person or thing) of I, he, she, it, 
thou, you, they. 

Ex. — Thou art the man. It is the captain. 

85. Command something of George or James, and explain 
the use of the name (40), the state of the subject (whether ex- 
pressed or understood), and the class of the jwedicatc. 

86. Ask something respecting an unknown person, or an 
unknown act of a known person, or respecting any thing, and 
point out the interrogative pronouns; also the class of the 
predicates. 

Ex.— Who stands on the hill ? What are they doinjr ? 



VERBS, PARTICIPLES, AND ADJECTIVES. 35 

87. Write short sentences, giving a summary of your work 
for the week in Geography, Arithmetic, History, or any other 
study, paying no attention, while writing, to the predicates or 
the sentences; then select the predicative combinations and 
classify the predicates. 

Classes of Verbs, Participles, and Adjectives. 

88. A verb is a word which expresses and (as a true 
verb) affirms being, action, or state. 

Ex. — I write. He is. They are defeated. The world stands. 

80. The being, action, or state is, — 

1. Affirmed, when the verb as copula and attribute expresses a com- 
plete predication. 

Ex. — The storm abated. The lion roars. 

2. Assumed, when the attribute alone is taken with a substantive, 
without predication. 

Ex. — The rising sun. The winds blowing off the shore. 

3. Used abstractly, when the attribute alone, either as a parti- 
ciple or an infinitive, is taken without a substantive, and is itself used 
substantively. 

Ex. — In. rising; to blow. 

The term action will be used hereafter, in a general way, to stand for the 
verbal attribute, whether it denotes an activity or a state of the subject. It is 
important to observe that a verb may have an attribute in itself, in which it is a 
verb of complete predication, or it may require an attribute, as in case of to be, 
to complete the predication; as, He runs; he is — {well). The copula or copu- 
lative element in the verb intimates or begins, and the attribute completes, the 
predication. 

90. Verbs are classified according to their power of ex- 
pressing both predication and action ; they are, — 

1. The copula, or verb of incomplete predication, and no action. 

Thus, the ice is — (cold): the horses are — (running): the sun is — (rising). 
Observe, here, that there is neither action nor complete assertion till the attribute 
cold, running, or rising is added. Mark the difference between this and the case 
in which the verb to be predicates existence; as, there was a storm = a storm 
existed ; Troy was = once existed. 



36 VERBS, PARTICIPLES, AND ADJECTIVES. 

2. The transitive, or verb of complete predication, but incomplete 
action. 

Thus, the boy bought — (a knife) ; here bought expresses a complete assertion, 
but the action is incomplete till something like knife, book, or horse is added. 

3. The intransitive, or verb of both complete predication and com- 
plete action. 

Thus, "the sun rises" represents both the predication and the action as 
complete. 

4. The copulative, or verb, — 

(a.) Of complete action, but of predication, requiring in its present use still 
further completion. 

Ex. — She moved — (a goddess), and she looked — (a queen). The rose smells 
sweet. The bread turns brown. 

Here is a double attribute; the verb used in this particular way takes, 
besides its own, still another attribute to complete the special predication 
intended. In their ordinary uses move and look express a complete predication ; 
as, I move, I look. The copulative verb differs from the copula in this : the latter 
takes but one attribute, whereas the former takes two. In this case the 
copulative is like the ordinary intransitive verb, so far as it affirms a verbal 
attribute, but differs from that in admitting still another attribute to complete 
the special predication demanded by the thought. This attribute may be a noun, 
an adjective, or a participle. 

Ex. — It seemed a monster. He stood a man. He died a hero. She looks 
pale. The moon shines bright. The wind blows cold. She sat weeping. The 
boy went playing by the way. 

(6.) Of action and predication, requiring in its present use still further com- 
pletion. Thus, they called — (him) — (John) , the company elected — Mr. Brown — ■ 
their leader ; the fruit made — the boy — sick. The peculiarity of this construction 
is that the verb as transitive governs the first object, and as copulative predi- 
cates of that object an attribute, thereby bringing in, as above, a second attribute. 
but affirming it, not of the subject, as in that case, but of the object. Hence, we 
have here, not a double attribute, but a double object, one direct or principal, and 
the other attributive. 

Ex. — They appointed him commander. They made him joyful. They sent 
him away rejoicing. 

In this case the copulative is like the ordinary transitive verb, so far as it 
governs an object, but differs from it in predicating an attribute of that object. 
In (a) above, the attribute shows in what capacity or state the subject is, alter 
the action expressed by the verb ; in this it shows what the object becomes, or in 
what state it is found, by virtue of the action of the verb. In the passive voice 
the object becomes the subject, leaving the two attributes in the predicate ; as, 
He was appointed commander. The order of arrangement is, the direct object 



VERBS, PARTICIPLES, AND ADJECTIVES. 37 

first, the attributive next; but this order is changed when the direct object is 
modified by a phrase or a clause, or when a relative or an interrogative pro- 
noun occasions an inversion ; as, " the streams whereof shall make glad the city 
of God ;" " what do you call it?" " you will be what you make yourself." 

5. The participle, or the infinitive, a verb or a verbal, — 

(a.) Of either complete or incomplete action, but of no predication. 

Ex. — Writing, planned, to sing, to read. 

(b.) Of neither action nor predication. 

Ex. — Being, been, having been; to be, to have been. 

Thus, beginning with unfinished predication and no action, we pass through 
every possible gradation, till we come to unfinished action and no predication, 
and finally to neither action nor predication. 

91. In respect to form, verbs are, — 

1. Regular, or weak verbs, when the past tense and past participle 
are formed by adding ed to the simple form. 

Ex. — Love, loved, loved; gain, gained, gained. 

"When the root verb ends in e, that letter is dropped before the addition is 
made. 

2. Irregular, or strong verbs, when the past tense and past participle 
are not formed by adding ed. 

Ex. — See, saiv, seen; write, wrote, written. 
For the list of irregular verbs, see Appendix. 

92. A participle is a word having the signification of a 
verb, but the construction of an adjective. 

Ex. — The boy skating on the ice. Having finished his task, he returned. 

93. There are properly two participles, — the present and 
the perfect. 

Ex. — Reading, having read; (being) loved, having been loved. 

94. There are, however, three forms, commonly called 
participles, — the present, the past, and the perfect. 

Present. Past. Perfect. 

Ex. — Active. Loving, loved, having loved. 

Passive. (Being) loved, loved, having been loved. 

95. An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify a 
noun. 



38 CLASSES OF VERBS, PARTICIPLES AND ADJECTIVES. 

Ex. — Ten trees. This pen. The box. Some fruit. Diligent boys. Beauti- 
ful clouds. 

Observe, tbat tbe office of the adjective is twofold. All those which qualify 
the noun, add to its meaning and limit the extent of its application. Thus, dili- 
gent adds to boys a quality which does not belong to them as boys merely, and 
diligent boys is limited to fewer individuals than boys alone, — whereas ten adds noth- 
ing to the meaning of trees ; it merely limits the extent of its application. Hence, — 

96. Adjectives are divided into two classes, — limiting 
and qualifying. 

97. A limiting adjective is used to define or restrict the 

application of a noun without expressing any of its 
qualities. 

Ex. — The house. Those men. Five birds. Every bush. Many men. A 
twofold argument. 

98. A qualifying adjective is one which limits the appli- 
cation of a noun by denoting some property or quality. 

Ex. — A virtuous man. A good choice. A pleasant walk. 

99. Limiting adjectives include, — 

1. The articles a or an, called the indefinite article, and the, called 
the definite article. 

Observe, that there is no difference between a and an, except that a is used 
before a consonant sound — a pen, a union — and an before a vowel sound — an 
eagle, an hour. 

Observe, also, that a or an applies to nouns in the singular number, the to 
those of either number ; that the prefixed to an adjective gives it the force of a 
common noun; as.'^Ae good, the loise. The place of the article when the noun is 
limited by an adjective is before the adjective, except in case of such, so, all and 
many, when it follows it ; as, such a story ; so mild a medicine ; all the fishes ; 
many an opportunity. 

2. Pronominal adjectives, or those which, without the use of the 
article, may represent a noun when understood. 

Ex. — This (book) is mine; that is yours. 

3. Numeral adjectives, or those which express number. 
Ex. — One, two, third, fourth, fivefold. 

(a.) These are cardinal when they denote how many — one, two, three, etc.; 
ordinal, when they show which one of a series — first, second, third, etc. ; and 
multiplicative, when they show repetition— twofold, threefold, etc. 



THE SEVERAL FORMS OF THE PREDICATE. 39 

(b.) Qualifying adjectives include all those which express any attribute of an 
object, and consequently include the participles which express attributes of 
action. 

(c.) Qualifying adjectives, unlike limiting, can become substantive only by 
change of form or by prefixing the article ; as, rich-ness, Jertil-ity, the rich, the 
young. Qualifying adjectives express thought, and therefore can form predicates. 
Limiting adjectives, strictly as such, do not express thought, but the limitations 
of thought, and therefore cannot form predicates. Yet many of them, — this, that, 
these, those, many, such, all, Jive, ten. fifth, twentieth, etc., — as the representatives 
of nouns, may form predicates. Let it be observed that when the substantive is 
used in the predicate, it is classified, as in (69). 

Exercise upon the Several Forms of the Predicate. 

100. Select the subjects and predicates in the following 
examples, analyze the combination, as in the models (57), and 
classify the predicates according to (79) : — 

This strange appearance occasioned new alarm. Every enterprise 
of the Pilgrims began from God. Little minds are subdued by mis- 
fortune. Joan of Arc was confident of success. Wellington was 
general of the English army. The pursuit of pleasure is often vain. 
Rome was mistress of the world. The artist is very original. He 
was the leader of a forlorn hope. 

101. Examine the verbs in the following examples, and 
state which are copulas, which are transitive, which are 
intransitive, which are copulative, and, in case of the last, 
whether the added attribute is predicated of the subject or of 
the object : — 

The house is warm. The wind is blowing. The mountain stands. 
The ocean roars. The squirrel eats nuts. The boy seems an invalid. 
The fellow appears an idiot. They called him an impostor. He was 
appointed chief. They are coming. The knife is sharp. That animal 
is a kangaroo. 

102. Consult the table of irregular verbs (Appendix), and 
tell which of the following are regular and which are irregular : — 

The sun is setting. John has gone to school. The children look for 
pebbles. My peace I give unto you. They live in England. I will 
lie down to rest. 



40 MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

103. Write an account of your last lesson in arithmetic 
without regard to your sentences; then select and classify 
the verbs, nouns, pronouns, participles, and adjectives. 

104. Tell which of these participles express a present 
action, a past action, or a finished action: doing, did, having 
done, played, smiling, having sailed, reading, loved, 
found, delaying, having spoken. 



SECTION IT. 
MODIFICATION OF THE SUBJECT OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

The Several Modes of Modification. 

105. Any change in the meaning or in the application of 
the subject, whether produced by altering the word which 
represents it or by adding other words to it, is called a 
modification of the subject. 

Observe, that a substantive has for its meaning all that is implied in the attri- 
butes common to each individual ; it applies to every object which has the common 
attributes. Thus, man means all that is expressed by human, while it applies to 
every man. 

(a.) Although it is the principal office of the subject to represent some person, 
thing, or some abstract idea as the basis of an affirmation, yet language affords 
certain means by which the meaning or the application of the substantive may 
be so varied as to accommodate it to any state of the thought to be expressed. 

106. The meaning or the application of the subject may 
be varied, — 

1. By some change in the word which represents it; as, "The 
soldier perished ;" " The soldiers perished ;" the assertion in the first 
sentence applying to one person, that in the second to more than one. 

2. By additional words ; as, " Ten soldiers perished ;" "Brave soldiers 
perished." Here the subject, " soldiers," is restricted in its application 
to a certain number (ten), or to a certain class (brave). 



PEBSON OF THE SUBJECT. 41 

Observe, that this latter kind of modification introduces a new element of the 
sentence; any further consideration of it must be deferred for the present. 

107. When the meaning or application of the subject is 
varied by some change or inflection in the word, the 
modification is called an accident, or an accidental property. 

108. The accidental properties of the subject, or of the 
noun, in any relation, are person, number, gender, case. 

Ex. — Brother, brothers; priest, priestess; man, men. 

(a.) These properties belong to the noun or the pronoun, either as subject, 
attribute, or object. 

(b.) The accidents of the subject are shown, — 

1. By a change of form; as, bird, birds; hero, hero-me. 

2. By a change of the word itself; as, "He sings " (when I speak of the 
singer); " You sing" (when I speak to the singer); "/sing" (when I am the 
singer). 

(3.) By a prefix ; as, " a Ae-goat," " a coc^-sparrow." 

(e.) Some nouns admit of no inflection to denote a change in their application ; 
as, deer, sheep, vermin. 

Person of the Subject or of the Substantive. 

109. The person of the subject is that property which 
shows its relation to the speaker. 

110. The speaker may sustain one of three relations to 
the subject; he may be himself the subject, he may speak 
to the subject, or he may speak of the subject. These- 
relations are denominated the first, second, and third per- 
sons respectively. 

Ex. — /write. You write. J7e writes, 

(a.) These relations are indicated by the word employed ; as, I, thou, 
he. Hence any change in the relation is indicated by a change in the word ; 
as, "/write," "You write." 

111. To denote these three relations, a peculiar class of 
words is used, called personal pronouns. 



42 PERSON OF THE SUBJECT. 

(a.) These pronouns are not used simply to avoid repetition. The subject in 
the first and second persons must always be a pronoun. A noun cannot be 
employed. One would not be understood to speak of himself if he should say, 
" Henry wrote ;" he must say, " I wrote." We should say, for the second per- 
son, " You read," and not " Alexander reads." But in the third person the 
name of the subject may be used, as, " Henry wrote," and, to avoid repetition, 
" He wrote." 

(b.) These pronouns are called personal, because they are used to indicate the 
grammatical accident person. They show the relation of the subject to the 
speaker. 

(c.) These pronouns are properly called substantives, because they may take 
the place of the noun in any of its relations; whereas the relative pronoun can 
never become the subject of a sentence, though it may be the subject of a de- 
pendent proposition. Hence the relative pronoun, though representing a sub- 
stantive, cannot be considered in this connection. 

112. A noun of the first or of the second person is never 
used as the subject or the object of a verb, but may be put 
in apposition with either for the purpose of explanation. 

Ex. — /, Paul, beseech you. The salutation of me, Paul. 

(a.) As the first and second persons are the parties to give and receive a propo- 
sition, they are not necessarily parties in it. They become such only when 
spoken of. They cannot, then, appear by name, but by their appropriate repre- 
sentatives I and you. 

113. The personal pronouns which may represent the 
subject are, — 

1. First Person { *> ■ d f^ r ' 

l ft e, plural. 

_ . . _, ( Thou. (You), sinqular. 

2. Second Person \ ^ r ' K ' * 

I Ye, You, •plural. 

( masculine, He, ~\ 

3. Third Person ■] feminine, She, > singular. They, plural. 

(_ neuter, . . . It, ) 

Exercise upon the Person of the Subject. 

114. Analyze the following propositions^ and give the per- 
son of each subject: — 

I am well. You sit. We have come. He is delirious. Thou art 
the man. Wisdom is profitable. Paul preached. She is writing. It 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 43 

is true. They labor. Ye resist. Boys play. Larks sing. Insects 
buzz. 

115. Write subjects, in the first, second, and third per- 
sons respectively, to each of the following predicates, making 
such changes in them as may be necessary : — 

Is late ; am exhausted ; is plundering ; is a pupil ; might be edu- 
cated ; is affable ; art content ; play ; sing ; lead ; is a mathematician ; 
will be satisfied ; can find ; did defend ; does reply. 

Ex. — We are late. Thou art late. He is late. 



Number of the Subject or of any Substantive. 

116. The subject may represent one person or thing ; or 
more than one, as acting. 

Ex. — The branch withered. The branches withered. 

117. There are two numbers, the singular and the 
plural. 

118. The singular denotes but one object. 

Ex. — Man, house, tree, church, I, he, she. 

119. The plural denotes more than one. 

Ex. — Men, houses, trees, churches, we, they. 

Formation of the Plural. 

120. The plural of nouns is regularly formed, — 

1. By adding s when the singular ends with a sound that call unite 
or coalesce with s. 

Ex. — Book, books; tree, trees. 

2. By adding es when the singular ends with a sound that cannot 
unite with s. 

Ex. — Box, boxes; church, churches. 

121. Many nouns form their plurals more or less 
irregularly. 



44 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

1. Many nouns ending with y preceded by a consonant change y 
into i and add es. 

Ex. — Fly, flies; berry, berries; body, bodies. 

But when preceded by a vowel, the y is not changed. 
Ex. — Boy, boys; toy, toys; valley, valleys. 

2. Some nouns ending in / and fe change these terminations tow, 
and add s. 

Ex. — Loaf, loaves; leaf, leaves; wife, wives. 

So, also, calf, half sheaf, shelf, thief, wharf, ivolf, elf, knife, life; but others, 
as, gulf, roof, hoof, fife, form the plural regularly. 

3. Nouns ending in o add es when o is preceded by a consonant ; s 
only when it is preceded by a vowel. 

Ex. — Potato, potatoes ; cargo, cargoes ; folio, folios ; cameo, cameos. 

4. The following plurals are very irregular. 

Ex. — Child, children; man, men; woman, women; brother, brothers or breth- 
ren; mouse, mice; die, dice (dies, stamps) ; tooth, teeth; foot, feet; ox, oxen; 
goose, geese; penny, pence or pennies. 

5. Proper nouns, most abstract nouns, and nouns denoting substance 
have no plural. 

Ex. — Providence, goodness, wood, gold. We may, however, pluralize the 
names of families, tribes, and nations, — the Johnsons, the Mohawks, the Germans. 

6. In compound words, if the principal word is placed first, it is 
varied to form the plural ; as, cowrte-martial, sons-in-law ; but if 
placed last, the final word is changed ; as, pail/itfe, hand/itfe. 

7. Letters, marks, and figures are pluralized by adding 's. 
Ex.— The a's, the 9's, the +'s. 

8. Some nouns are used only in the plural. 

Ex. — Tongs, riches, scissors, embers, ashes, bellows, draxvers. 

9. Some nouns are alike in both numbers. 

Ex. — Sheep, trout, dozen, vermin, hose, yoke, and others. 

10. Nouns from foreign languages often retain their original plurals. 
Ex. — Automaton, automata; axis, axes; bandit, banditti; beau, beaux; 

cherub, cherubim; criterion, criteria; datum, data; erratum, errata; ellipsis, 
ellipses; focus, foci; formula, formulce; genus, genera; hypothesis, hypotheses ; 
memorandum, memoranda; minutia, minutice; monsieur, messieurs; nebida, 
nebula?; phenomenon, phenomena; radius, radii; stamen, stamina, and others. 



NUMBER OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 45 

11. The plurals of pronouns are irregular, and must be learned by 
their use. 

Note. — For the declension of the nouns and pronouns, which should be 
studied in connection with the iollowing exercises, see Appendix. 



Exercises upon the Number of the Substantive. 

122. Analyze the following examples, giving the number and 
class of each noun : — 

Columbus sailed. Stars shine. James decreed. Cornwallis sur- 
rendered. Candia is an island. Socrates was poisoned. Lions roar. 
Grapes fall. Trees decay. Churches stand. Foxes are cunning. 
Weeds overrun. Benjamin was seen. Silver shines. Pencils are 
used. Washington was President. Kings are rulers. Eggs are 
broken. Vinegar is sour. 

123. Write predicates to the plurals of the following 
nouns : — 

Star, son, pipe, monarch, church, hero, fife, ox, cargo, ship, 
man, child, lily, wolf, wife, folio, muff, negro, sheep, mystery, 
vermin, lady, turkey, chief, hoof, mouse, goose, fly, box, day, 
duty. 

Ex. — Stars shine. Sons obey. 

124. Put plural pronouns in the place of your subjects in 
(123), and write predicates to the plurals of I, thou, he, she, 
it, who? which? what? 



Gender of the Subject, or of the Substantive in 
General. 

125. Every animal is either male or female, and, hence, 
is said to be of the masculine or feminine gender. 

126. Most nouns denoting the different relations among 
men, and those of the most common and useful animals, 
also indicate their sex. 



4ti GENDER OF THE SUBJECT. 

Ex. — Father, mother; uncle, aunt; son, daughter: ram, ewe, cock, hen. 

127. But to those animals which are less useful, or are 
less observed by man, but one name is given for the male 
and the female ; as, sparrow, mouse, pigeon. 

(a.) In such cases the sex is usually determined by a prefix; as cock-sparrow 
he-mouse. 

(b.) Some nouns denoting the mutual relations among men do not indicate sex, 
as, parent, teacher, child. 

128. Inanimate objects have no such distinction as sex; 
yet the term gender, as a grammatical distinction, is 
applied to these as neuter ; that is, neither male nor female. 

129. There are, therefore, three distinctions, called 
genders, — the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

(a.) Gender is indicated either by the word itself, by a change in a word, or by 
a prefix or suffix. 

130. The pronouns of the third person, singular, indi- 
cate the gender of the nouns which they represent. 

131. Nouns or pronouns which denote, — 

1. Males, are of the masculine gender. 
Ex. — Man, hero, he. 

2. Females, are of the femin ine gender. 

Ex. — Girl, women, she. 

3. Neither male nor female, are of the neuter gender. 
Ex. — Tree, river, it. 

(a.) Nouns which are equally applicable to a male or female are sometimes 
said to be of the common gender; as, parent, teacher. But such nouns must be 
either masculine or feminine, and the true gender may generally be determined 
by the connection. 

(b.) By a figure of speech (personification), inanimate objects are spoken of as 
male or female. Thus, in speaking of a ship, we say, " She sails." 

132. There are three methods of distinguishing the 
sexes : — 

1. By using different words; as, man, woman; ram, ewe; king, 
queen. 



CASE OF THE SUBJECT OR OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 47 

2. By a difference of termination ; as, abbot, abbess ; actor, actress ; 
jjoet, poetess. 

3. By prefixes and suffixes ; as, maw-servant, maid-servant ; he- 
goat, s/ie-goat ; land-ford, land-lady. 

(a.) Personal pronouns of the first and second person have no form to indicate 
gender. 

Exercises upon the Gender of the Subject. 

133. Write subjects to the following predicates : — 

Masculine Gender. Conquered ; is wise ; was detested ; is a black- 
smith ; is discreet ; are confiding ; are discharged ; is lame ; are emi- 
grating ; is benevolent ; is grateful ; will devour ; gnaw ; will fight ; 
complain; eat. 

Feminine Gender. Is brooding ; lowed ; is playing ; sings ; is cheer- 
ful; rode; is a teacher; is practising; can dance; was injured; are 
anxious ; are faithful ; are chirping ; are attentive. 

Neuter Gender. Roll ; grow ; is sold ; is deceptive ; blows ; shines ; 
is falling ; is a vegetable. 

Ex. — Alexander conquered. The hen is brooding. Stones roll. 

Case of the Subject or of the Substantive in any 
Relation. 

134. Case denotes the relation of the substantive to 
other words 

Observe (23), that the substantive is either the principal or the subordinate 
term in three of the four combinations, and that it may be the subordinate term 
even in the fourth. Observe, also, that in the predicative and adjective combi- 
nations the substantive may form both terms (25) ; whether it changes form or 
not, it is made t# indicate or represent the relation between the terms of a combi- 
nation. 

135. There are three cases, the nominative, the posses- 
sive, and the objective. 

136. The case of the subject denotes its relation to the 
predicate, and is always nominative. 



48 MODELS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

(a.) This is that construction of the substantive which places it as superior to 
all other terms in the sentence. Hence, it undergoes no change on account of 
the combination of other terms with it, hut takes the simple name-form or 
nomen-ative. It may change form for the thought which it expresses in itself ; 
it may be either singular or plural ; as, book, books; it may denote a male or a 
female ; as, abbot, abbess. This universal law in all languages gives rise to the 
following rule, — 

137. Mule I, — A noun or a pronoun used as the 
subject of a proposition must be in the nominative 
case. 

(a.) This rule is universal, in English at least, and does not admit of an 
exception. For the order and forms of the cases, see Declension, Appendix. 

Suggestion. — This is the rule to be applied whenever we dispose of the sub- 
ject. It is important now to bring together all the properties of the subject, 
and to apply this rule for its construction. In disposing of the other member of 
this combination, and of all the other combinations, special rules will be given 
when we discuss them. 

138. Parsing (Pars = determining parts) consists in parting 
or separating the sentence or proposition into its words, 
giving the class name (or part of speech) of the word, 
stating its modifications, its relation in its own combi- 
nation, and the rule for its construction. 



Exercises and Models for Analysis and Parsing. 

139. Study carefully the following Model for analysis , and 
parse the subject. 

George writes = S P. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 

George = S is the subject, because it represents that of which the 
action "writes" is affirmed. 

Writes = P is the predicate, because it expresses the action affirmed 
of the subject. 

George ... is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, nominative case, and is the subject of 
the proposition, " George writes ;" according to Kule I., 
" A noun or a pronoun used as the subject of a proposi- 
tion must be in the nominative case." 



MODELS FOB ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 49 

MO. Analyze He is active = S P. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition ; it 
is declarative, because it contains a statement. 

He N is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, nominative case, and is the subject 
of the proposition, "He is active;" according to Rule I. 

141. Analyze Who speaks ? = S P. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition ; it is 
interrogative, because it asks a question. 

Who is the subject (why?). 

Speaks .... is the predicate (why?). 

Who is an interrogative pronoun, of the third person, singular 

number, masculine or feminine gender, nominative case, 
and is the subject of the proposition, "Who speaks," 
according to Rule I. 

142. Analyze the following propositions, and parse the 
subjects : — 

I am prepared. Jesus wept. Milo lifted. Money tempted. Rain 
descended. Abraham was faithful. Job was patient. Comets appear. 
Planets revolve. Solomon prayed. They will quarrel. He is ruined. 
David was king. We must study. England was invaded. William 
conquered. Harold was defeated. Exercise strengthens. 

, Stealing is base. Thou art seated. She is coming. It rains. It 
snows. It lightens. You sing. He is detestable. Fishes swim. 

143. Write subjects to the following predicates, and let the 
first three propositions be interrogative. 

Is a monster ; are coming ; is burning ; neigh ; art wise ; were 
handled ; is numbered ; is a giant ; are reptiles ; are vegetables ; is a 
beverage ; is impossible ; will be defeated ; paints ; draws ; is a con- 
ductor; dances. 

144. Write ten entire sentences of your own about a walk, 
a skating -party, or some familiar event; select the subjects } 
and parse them. 



SECTION III. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE, OR VERB AND 
ATTRIBUTE. 

The Several Modes of Modification. 

145. Any change which varies the application or mean- 
ing of the predicate, whether produced by altering either 
of the words (copula or attribute) which represent it, or 
by adding other words to it, is called a modification of the 
predicate. 

(a.) As it is the chief office of the subject to represent some person or thing 
<is the basis of an affirmation, so it is the principal office of the predicate to 
denote what is affirmed. But, like the subject, it can be made, by certain 
changes, to represent other properties not essential to it as predicate. 

(b.) These changes are produced either by varying the form of the attribute 
(37. 2) or copula, or by adding other words to one or both of them. 

146. When the modification takes place by uniting two 
verbal forms, or by altering the form either of the copula 
or attribute, it is called an accident or an accidental property 
of the predicate, and the variation is called an inflection. 

(a.) The verbs which unite with others to form the various modifications of 
the predicate are called auxiliaries. 

(b.) When the predicate is modified by the addition of any other word than 
an auxiliary verb, a new element of the sentence is introduced ; as, " Birds fly 
swiftly;"" Edmund sold oranges.'' 



Modifications of the Substantive as Predicate. 

147. When the attribute of the predicate is a noun or a 
pronoun, it may, like the subject, be made to denote per- 

50 



PAESING THE PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 51 

son, number, gender, and case. The following are the 
rules for the construction of the predicate-nominative : — 

Utile II — 1. A noun or a pronoun used with the 
copula to form the predicate must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

2. A noun or a pronoun used as the second attri- 
bute after a copulative verb must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

(a.) When a noun or a pronoun is thus used, it is called the predicate-nominative, 
to distinguish it from the subject-nominative. The predicate-nominative always 
denotes the same person or thing as the subject, and must agree with it in case. 
When the predicate-nominative denotes a person, it usually agrees with the sub- 
ject in gender, number, and case. 

It belongs to the general class of constructions called appositives, but is to be 
carefully distinguished from apposition proper. 

(6.) By a peculiar idiom of the English language, the neuter pronoun it, as 
subject, may represent a noun or pronoun as predicate of any number, person, 
or gender ; as, " It is I ;" " It is they ;" " It is James ;" " It is she." 

(c.) The place of the predicate-nominative is after the copula, but in interroga- 
tive sentences its place is often changed ; as, " Is it I ?" " Who is that ?" 

(d.) Sometimes as, denoting office, capacity, or situation, is used to connect an 
attribute (either predicated or assumed) with the word to which it belongs ; as, 
" The moon as satellite attends;" " He was regarded as innocent." 



Models for Parsing the Predicate-Nominative. 

14:8. Study the following models for parsing the predicate- 
nominative. 

Gold is a metal = S P. 

(See Model for Analysis 57.) 

Metal is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 

neuter gender, nominative case, and with "is" forms the 
predicate of the proposition, " Gold is a metal ;" accord- 
ing to Rule II. — " A noun or a pronoun used with the copula 
to form the predicate, must be in the nominative case." 



02 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE-ADJECTIVE. 

He is called a hero = S P P. 

Hero is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 

masculine gender, nominative case, and is used as the 
second attribute after the copulative verb " is called," to 
form the predicate of the proposition, " He is called a 
hero ;" according to Eule II. 2, " A noun or a pronoun 
used as the second attribute after a copulative verb must 
be in the nominative case." 
Observe, that this proposition has two attributes, called and hero, both of 

which, with is, constitute the predicate. 

149. Analyze the following propositions, parsing the sub- 
jects and attributes: — 

Demosthenes was an orator. I am he. It is I. It is Abraham. 
Horses are animals. He was considered a genius. She is a poetess. 
Madison was elected President. We are pupils. He is deemed a 
workman. They have become teachers. Borneo is an island. Algebra 
is a science. Air is a fluid. Water is a liquid. Oxygen is a gas. He 
appeared as agent. He is regarded as a historian. 

150. Write a subject and a copula to each of the following 
nouns and pronouns taken as attributes : — 

You, soldier, treatise, I, she, king, trees, vegetables, Andrew, 
Benjamin, animals, virtue, book, they, we, serpent, fish, insect, 
reptile, flower, plant, mineral, bay, harbor, planet, comet. 

Ex. — It is »vou. He was a soldier. 



Modifications of the Adjective as Predicate. 

151. When the attribute of the predicate is an adjective, 
it may be varied to indicate, — 

1. That the subject possesses the quality expressed by the adjective 
in a higher or lower degree than some other person or thing with 
which it is compared. 

Ex. — Charity is greater than hope. Charles is smaller than James. 

2. That the subject possesses the quality denoted by the adjective in 
the highest or lowest degree, when considered in reference to all other 
objects with which it is compared. 

Ex. — The greatest of these [three] is charity. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE-ABJECTIVE. 53 

Instead of being compared with another person or thing, the subject may be 
compared with itself, since it may, at different times or under different circum- 
stances, possess a quality in different degrees ; as, " His health is better to-day 
than it was yesterday." 

152. Comparison is the variation of the adjective to 
show different degrees of the quality which it expresses. 

(a.) Comparison is indicated, — 1st. By changing the form of the adjective ; as, 
wise, wiser, ivisest. 2d. By changing the word; as, bad, worse, worst. 3d. By 
adding other words; as, industrious, more industrious, most industrious. 

(6.) As comparison always requires an additional element of the sentence to 
complete the sense, the subject cannot be fully discussed in this connection. It 
applies to the adjective in any of its uses. 

153. There are three degrees of comparison, the posi- 
tive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

154:. The positive expresses the quality without com- 
parison. 

Ex. — Good, honest, just. 

155. The comparative expresses a higher or a lower 
degree than the positive. 

Ex. — The sun is larger than the moon. 

156. The superlative expresses the highest or the lowest 
degree of the quality. 

Ex. — This tree is the tallest of all. 

(a.) Comparison applies to the adjective, either as predicated or assumed. 
(6.) "When the adjective is used to form the predicate, it is called the predicate- 
adjective, to distinguish it from the adjective when used as a modifier. 

157. The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed 
by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, 
to the positive. 

Ex. — Wise, wis-er. ivis-est; bold, bold-er, bold-est. Dissyllables in le and y 
and some others are compared like monosyllables; as, noble, nobler, noblest; 
worthy, worthier, worthiest, 

15S. The comparison of most adjectives of more than 
one syllable (sometimes of one only) is formed by prefixing 



54 PARSING THE PREDICATE-ADJECTIVE. 

to the positive more or less for the comparative, and most 
or least for the superlative, 

Ex. — Industrious, more industrious, most industrious; beautiful, less beauti- 
ful, least beautiful. 

(a.) The following adjectives are compared irregularly: good, better, best; 
bad, worse, worst; ill, worse, worst; little, less or lesser, least; much, more 
most; many, more, most; far, farther, farthest; near, nearer, nearest or 
next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, eldest or oldest; fore, 
former, foremost or first; forth (obsolete), further, furthest. 

(o.) Adjectives terminating in ish indicate the possession of a quality in a less 
degree than that of the positive ; as, bluish, blue, bluer, bluest. 

(c.) Limiting adjectives, and those derived from proper names, from names 
of materials, of figures, of time, and of state, and those which express quality 
absolutely, are not compared. 

Ex. — This, every, ten, wooden, triangular, daily, asleep, round. 

159. The predicate-adjective should be parsed by the 
following rule : — 

Mule III. — An adjective used with the copula, or 
with a copulative verb to form the predicate, belongs 
to the subject. 

(a.) In other languages the relation of the adjective to the subject is indi- 
cated by an agreement in number, gender, and case. 



Exercise; Models for Parsing the Predicate- Adjective. 

160.* Study the following Models for disposing of the predi- 
cate-adjective. 

He is benevolent = S P. 

This is a simple sentence, since it contains but one proposition, and 
that a principal one. It is declarative (why?) ; He is the subject, and 
is benevolent is the predicate. 

Benevolent . is an adjective, of the positive degree (compared, benevo- 
lent, more benevolent, most benevolent), and forms with 
" is" the predicate of the proposition, " He is benevolent," 
It belongs to " he;" according to Rule III., " An adjective 
used with the copula or with a copulative verb, to form 
the predicate, belongs to the subject," 



PARSING THE PREDICATE-ADJECTIVE. 55 

Richard is older [than John]. = S P. 

Older is an adjective, of the comparative degree (compared, old, 

older, oldest), and forms with "is" the predicate of the 
proposition, " Richard is older." It belongs to the subject, 
according to Rule III. 

The words in brackets here and in the Model below should be omitted for the 
present. 

Achilles was the bravest [of the Greeks]. = S P. 

Bravest ... is an adjective, of the superlative degree (compared, 
brave, braver, bravest), and forms with "was" the predi- 
cate of the proposition, " Achilles was," etc. It belongs 
to " Achilles," according to Rule III. 

161. Analyze the following examples, and parse the adjec- 
tives : — 

Washington was wise. The country is free. The furniture is old. 
The child is weak. The wind is cold. The ice is thin. The water is 
deep. The soil is rich. The boards are rough. The general is brave. 
Is Edward sick ? Life is short. Are the streets wide ? The dog is 
faithful. George is industrious. The constable is active. Gold is 
precious. Diamonds are combustible. The sun is brilliant. The 
days are long. 

162. Write predicate-adjectives to complete the following : — 

Jonas is. The moon is. The ocean is. Truth is. He is. Wash- 
ington was. Arnold was. Flowers are. I am. Ice is. Roses are. 

Ex. — Jonas is sick = 8P. 

163. Write a subject and copula to each of the following 
adjectives used as predicates : — 

Handsome, powerful, awful, warm, mild, gentle, able, sad, mourn- 
ful, judicious, wise, discreet, unsuccessful, kind. 
Ex. — The horses are handsome. 

164. Write a description of some mountain or other object, 
and point out all the predicate adjectives. 



56 BEBSON AND NUMBER OF THE VEBB. 



Modifications of the Yerb as Predicate. 

165. The verb (except " to be") includes both the copula 
and attribute, whether separate, as, " Flowers are bloom- 
ing y " or combined, as, " Flowers bloom." 

(a.) The verbal attribute, when separated from the copula, is a kind of 
adjective. It partakes of the properties both of the adjective and verb, and is 
hence called a participle. Like the adjective, it denotes some property of a 
noun. It may represent either an assumed or predicated property; as, " Horses 
running;" "Horses are running." It relates to the noun in the same manner 
as the adjective. But, on the other hand, unlike the adjective, it expresses 
action ; it may be blended with the copula and form the predicate ; it may, like 
the verb, represent the different conditions of the action, and may receive the 
same limitations by additional words, as the verb does. 

(b.) The copula and participle, when distinct, constitute a peculiar form of the 
verb, called the progressive form. 

166. The accidents of the verb are person, number, voice, 
mode, and tense. They show a relation both to the subject 
and the speaker. 



Person and Number of the Yerb. 

167. The person and number of the verb are properties 
which show its agreement with the subject. Like the 
subject, the verb has three persons and two numbers. 

(a.) Person and number are not so distinctly marked in the English verb as 
in most other languages. 

(b.) Both person and number, so far as shown at all by the verb itself, are 
indicated by a change of form. (See Appendix.) 

EXAMPLES. 
Singular. Plural. 

First Person, I am; First Person, We are; 

Second Person, Thou art; Second Person, You are; 

Third Person, He is. Third Person. They are. 



EXERCISE UPON THE VERB. 57 

168. The following is the rule for the construction of 
the verb : — 

Rule IV. — The verb must agree with its subject 
in person and number. 

(a.) This rule applies to the copula when distinct from the attribute, or to the 
verb when both are united; as, " Thou art sleeping;" " Thou .sleepesi." 

Observe, that the form art indicates the number and person, precisely in the 
same way as does the termination est. 

(6.) To this rule there is properly no exception. There is, however, an 
apparent exception in the case of collective nouns, which, in the singular 
number, may take a verb in the plural. If, in using such a noun, reference is 
had to the individuals forming' the collection, the verb should always be plural; 
otherwise it should be singular. 

Suggestion. — To avoid any break in the continuity of these exercises, the 
conjugations of the verbs are placed in the Appendix. The pupil should be 
carefully drilled on these various tables. 



Exercise upon the Yerfo. 

169. Analyze the folloiving sentences, giving the number 
and person of each verb :— 

I write. He speaks. We say. They are riding. She is painting. 
You intimate. Thou, thinkest. Gibbon narrated. Francis drives. 
Plants thrive. Trees grow. Friends advise. Teachers direct. It 
rains. They run. Stars shine. 

170. Write each of the above sentences, separating the 
copula from the attribute. 

Ex. — I am ivriting. 

171. Write subjects to the following verbs, taking care to 
use the right number and person. 

Sleeps, consent, chatters, walkest, are studying, command, preach, 
whistle, delays, abides, live, beseech, betray, consignest, disfigure, 
is contriving, was finishing, art spinning, mayst stop, does deliber- 
ate, wilt stay. 

Ex. — Susan sleeps. We consent. 



58 VOICE OF THE VERB. 

172. Correct the following sentences: — 

James think. I readest. We speaks. You writes. Henry recitest. 
She complain. They viewedst. Thou is learning. We art ready. 
Some says. He lead. George art weeping. 

Ex. — James think. James think is incorrect, because think does not agree 
with James in number, according to Rule IV. It should be, James thinks. 



Yoice of the Yerb. 

173. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which 
shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. 

174. There are two voices, — 

1. The active, which represents the subject as acting. 
Ex. — John struck William. The dog devoured the meat. 

2. The passive, which represents the subject as acted upon. 
Ex. — William was struck by John. The meat was devoured by the dog. 

Observe, that John in the first case puts forth the action, and William receives 
it ; observe, also, that John is the subject of the proposition. In the second case, 
the putting forth and the receiving are by the same parties as before, but William 
is the subject (1, above). 

(a.) This property is peculiar to the transitive verb. Intransitive verbs have 
no passive form, except in a few instances, in which the proposition following is 
regarded as a part of the verb; as, "He was waited upon;" "A better time is 
hoped for." 

(b.) The intransitive verbs come, arrive, fall, rise, and others apparently 
admit of a passive form ; as, is fallen, is risen, etc. But these are the remnants 
of an old conjugation with be instead of have, like similar examples in French 
and German. 

175. The passive voice may be used when we wish to 
conceal the agent, give prominence to the event, or recon- 
struct the sentence, and the active voice may be changed 
to the passive by making the object of the former the sub- 
ject of the latter. 

Ex. — He struck 1hem. = Thev were struck by him. 



MODE OF THE VERB. 59 



Mode of the Yerb. 

176. Mode shows the manner in which the attribute is 
asserted of the subject. 

(a.) Mode relates to the manner of the assertion, not to that of the thing 
asserted, and therefore affects the copula rather than the attribute. Hence, 
when a verb contains the copula and attribute united, mode should be regarded 
as affecting the assertion, and not the action. The manner of the action is 
determined by additional words, as will be shown in a subsequent section. 

(b.) Assert, in this connection, is used in opposition to assume. It applies to 
all cases in which an attribute is connected with a subject by the copula, what- 
ever may be the particular mode of connection. 

177. An attribute may be connected with the subject so 
as to show that it actually exists as a property of the sub- 
ject; as, " James is rich." 

(a.) When a property does not actually exist in the subject, its absence is 
declared in a similar manner ; as, " James is not rich." 

(6.) A property may exist in the subject, and the speaker may be ignorant of 
it. He can then inquire after its existence as something actual; as, " Is James 
rich ?" 

Actuality is the idea which is common to these three cases. 

178. An attribute may be connected with the subject so 
as to show not that it really exists in it, but that such an 
existence is possible, probable, necessary, or obligatory; as, 
" James may be rich, can be rich, must be rich.' 1 

(a.) Here, again, the possibility or necessity may be denied or inquired for; as, 
" James cannot, must not, may not be rich ;" " Can, may, or must James be 

rich?" 

The idea of possibility, liberty, power, necessity, or obligation is the peculiarity 
of these forms of the verb. 

179. An attribute may be connected with the subject so 
as to show not actuality or possibility simply, but a mere 
conception of something doubtful or conditional; as, " Should 
virtue become vice ;" " If it rain ;" " Were he wrong." 

Contingency and condi/ionalify are the peculiarities of this form. 



60 EXERCISE UPON MODE, PERSON, AND NUMBER. 

180. An attribute may be connected with the subject so 
as to show that it has now no real existence in the subject, 
but such existence is commanded, exhorted, or entreated; 
as, " Be rich;" " Be [thou] kind ;" "Go;" "Sit." 

This form of the verb represents volition or desire. 

181. An attribute may be stated abstractly, having no 
connection with a subject ; as, " To be rich ;" " To write ;" 
"Being rich;" "Writing." 

182. These various forms of the verb are classified by 
grammarians under five divisions, called modes, — 

1. The indicative, which, represents what is actual. 

2. The potential, which represents what may, can, or must be. 

3. The subjunctive, which represents what is conditional or con- 
tingent. 

4. The imperative, which commands, exhorts, entreats. 

5. The infinitive, which represents an attribute abstractly. 

The infinitive and participle are forms of the verb, but not strictly 
modes. 

(a.) The infinitive may be regarded as a verbal noun and the participles as 
verbal adjectives. 

(6.) Mode is indicated chiefly by auxiliary verbs. 

(c.) The subjunctive and infinitive modes are used only as subordinate parts 
of a sentence, and cannot, therefore, be discussed here. 

Exercise upon Mode, Person, and Number. 

183. Analyze the following propositions, giving the mode 
of eacfi verb. Give also the number and person, according to 
Rule IV. 

The scales were turned. Charles was abandoned. The count was 
seized. We can dance. You may study. He is silent. Arthur was 
murdered. Stop. Stand still. Be careful. Be attentive. James 
was anxious. Truth is mighty. Wisdom exalts. Clouds overhang. 
Thunder roars. The lightning is vivid. Be wise. Awake. He may 



TENSE OF THE VERB. 61 

go. Study. You must write. Be gone. Arnold was a traitor. 
Esau was hated. It may rain. The clock may strike. 

184. Write predicates to the following subjects : — 

Indicative Mode. — Besiegers, Swedes, French, Bonaparte, pro- 
cession, ladies, enemy, skill, emperor, he, it, government, con- 
ventions, war. 

Ex. — The besiegers were repulsed. 

Potential Mode. — Fleet, column, congress, boys, sugar, toys, books, 
slates, ink, virtue, temperance, education, duty, mischief. 
Ex. — The fleet may be overtaken. A column must be erected. 

185. Convert the following infinitives into imperatives : — 

To write ; to study ; to play ; to sing ; to read ; to begin ; to delay ; 
to be active ; to be true ; to labor ; to travel ; to be acquitted ; to indi- 
cate ; to be happy ; to leave ; to wash ; to strike ; to love. 

Ex. — Write, or Write thou. 

The subject comes after the verb in the imperative mode, and is usually 
omitted. 

180. Change the modes in your written examples, — the 
indicative to the potential, the potential to the indicative, and 
so on. 

Ex. — The besiegers were repulsed. The besiegers might be repulsed. Be yo 
repulsed. To be repulsed. 

187. Write a summary of your work for the week, — point 
out every predicative combination, giving the person, number j 
and modes of the verbs. 

Observe, that in this exercise you are to let your thoughts have free play. 



Tense of the Terb. 

188. Tense denotes the time of an action or event. It 
may be either past, present or future. 

(a.) Since time, considered absolutely, is an unbroken succession of instants, 

we can speak of an event as past, present, future, only in relation to some point 

to which all others shall refer. The point assumed for this purpose is the time 

when the action or event is mentioned — that is, spoken or written — and is called 

6 



62 



TENSE OF THE VERB. 



the time of the speaker; as, "Columbus sailed" (1873 being the time of the 
speaker, and 1492 being the time of the event). 

(b.) There are, therefore, two points of time to be considered in the simplest 
form of the verb, — the time of the speaker, and the time of the event. The 
time of the event may be simultaneous with that of the speaker ; as, " Edward 
writes;" it is then called the present; — antecedent to that of the speaker; as, 
"Edward wrote;" it is then called the past; — subsequent to the time of the 
speaker ; as, " Edward will write ;" it is then called the future. 

189. Besides the point we have also the period of time. 

(a.) This may be a definite or an indefinite portion of time, as, a day, a week, a 
year, etc., and like the point may be past, present, or future. When the speaker 
takes a period as present, both the time of speaking and the time, of the event, 
though not simultaneous, may occur in it; as, " I have written to-day." 

190. When a tense is simply past, present, or future, 
without limitation and without reference to the continuance 
or the completion of the act, it is called an absolute tense. 

Ex. — I sing, I sang, I shall sing. 

(a.) Besides relating to the time of the speaker, an event may be limited to 
another time specified in the sentence ; as, " Edward was writing at noon." 
Here the act of writing is antecedent to the time of the speaker, but simultaneous 
with a specified time, " at noon." 

(b.) As in the first relation, so in this, the time of an event may be simultane- 
ous with, antecedent to, or subsequent to the specified time. 

(c.) This double, relation of the tenses will be best exhibited to the eye by the 
following table : — 



Point assumed. Event. 1st Rel. 

Edward was writing . . . (ante.) . 



Time of 

the 
speaker 



Edward is writing .... (simul.) . 
. Edward will be writing (subse.) . 



Point specified 

before noon 

at noon . . . 

after noon . 

( before noon 

< at noon . . . 
(. after noon . 
( before noon 

< at noon . . . 
(. after noon . 



2d Re!. 

(ante.) 
(simul.) 
(subse.) 

(ajite.) 
(simul.) 
(subse.) 

(ante.) 
(simul.) 
(subse.) 



The event is referred to the points mentioned on the right and left of it ; thus, 
" was writing" is antecedent to the point assumed (the time of the speaker), but 
may be either antecedent to, simultaneous with, or subsequent to the point 
specified (before, at, after noon). 



TENSE OF THE VE11B. 63 

191. The tense-form of the verb may indicate not only 
the time, but the state of an action with reference to its 
continuance or completion,' 

192. When a tense- form in itself suggests a time to be 
specified in the sentence, it is called a relative tense, 

Ex. — Edward had written — before night. Edward will have written — before 
noon. 

(a.) These two elements — the time and the state of the action — should he care- 
fully noted. When an action is spoken of without reference to its continuance 
or completion, even if a time is specified, the tense-form is absolute; as, "He 
wrote yesterday." But as the continuing or the completed action suggests or 
calls for a specified time, the tense becomes relative; as, " He had written (when) 
before noon." 

193. Each general division of time has two kinds of 
tenses, one absolute and one relative, 

Ex. — I love, I have loved ; I loved, I had loved ; I shall love, I shall have 
loved ; I am loving ; I was loving, I had been loving. 

(a.) Each absolute tense may be regarded as the present of its division ; as, 
" I study " (pres. of the pres.) ; " I studied " (pres. of the past) ; " I shall study " 
(pres. of the future). In the same manner, each relative tense may be regarded 
as the perfect or imperfect of its present. 

Ex. — I have studied (perf. of I study). I had studied (perf. of I studied). I 
shall have studied (perf. of I shall study). I am studying (imp. of I study). 
I was studying (imp. of I studied). I shall have been studying (imp. of I shall 
study). 

(b.) Each perfect tense denotes the completion of an act in the time to which 
it refers ; that is, its present. When the action is mentioned in its continuance, it 
is regarded as incomplete or imperfect. Hence, we have three imperfect tenses 
instead of the one so-called imperfect, namely, I am writing, I luas writing, 
I shall be xcriting . We have also three perfect tenses, namely, I have written, 
I had written, I shall have written. 

194. There are reckoned, however, but six tenses, three 
absolute (the present, the past, and the future), and three 
relative (the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future 
perfect). They may be exhibited by the following 
table : — 



64 



TENSE OF THE VERB. 



C The Present Tense, which denotes present time. 
I. Present^ The Present Perfect Tense, which denotes a past time and an act 
I completed in the present. 



II. Past 



III. Future 



The Past Tense, which denotes past time. 

The Past Perfect Tense, which denotes past time and an act com- 
pleted in the past. 

The Future Tense, which denotes future time. 

The Future Perfect Tense, which denotes future time and an act 
completed in the future. 



195. In the three general divisions, the English verb 
has, — 

1. For present and past, four tense-forms, two absolute and two 
relative. 

2. For the future, three tense-forms, one absolute and two relative. 

f 1. Absolute. { ]; Common form ' l write - 
p r , J (.2. Emphatic form, I a\o write. 

2 Relative { 1- ,mperfect or '"complete, I am writing (now). 
\ 2. Perfect or complete, I have written (to-day). 

To the last may be added the Perfect Imperfect, I have been writing (to-day). 

. , , . f 1. Common form, I wrote. 
1. Absolute. \ _ _ . . „ -r -,. , 

( Z. Emphatic form, I did write. 

( 1. Imperfect or incomplete, I was toriting (when?). 

\ 2. Perfect or complete, I had written (when?). 

Here, again, we have the Perfect Imperfect, I had been writing (when?). 

(1. Absolute. Common form, I shall write. 
_ _ , ., f 1. Imperfect or incomplete, I shall be writinq. 
2. Relative. \ _ _ \, ± , x r T \ „ . .^ y 

[ 2. Perfect or complete, 1 shcdl have written. 

To this also add the Perfect Imperfect, I shcdl have been writing. 

(a.) In the passive voice, which expresses the reception of the action by the 
subject, there are three forms for each division of time, namely, the common 
form, The house is built, was built, will be built; the imperfect (called the pro- 
gressive), The house is building, was building, uill be building ; sometimes, yet 
without the sanction of the best writers, is being built, was being built, will be 
being built; the perfect, The house has been built, had been built, tvill have been 
built. In attempting to combine the perfect and imperfect we have no difficulty 
in the authorized form, The house has been building, but find the other form 
exceedingly awkward : The house has been being built, had been being built, will 
have been being built. 



TENSE OF THE VERB. 65 

196. Of the six tenses, — 

1. Three are absolute {common form), the present, t\izpast, and the 
future. 

2. Three are relative {action complete), the present perfect, the pad 
perfect, and the, future perfect. 

(a.) If the analogy were carried out, there would be a third class of tenses, 
namely, three relative {action incomplete), the present imperfect, the past imperfect 
and the future imperfect. These are called the progressive forms of the verb. 

197. All the forms of the active and of the passive 
voice, indicative mode, may be thus exhibited, — 

ACTIVE FORM. 

C I write {common form). 
I. Presents I am writing {progressive form). 
( I do write {emphatic form). 
I wrote {common). 
II. Past -l I was writing {progressive). 
I did write {emphatic). 



III. Future 



( I shall write {covxmon) 



I. Pres. Perf. 



shall be writing {progressive). 
PERFECT TENSES. 

I have written {coinmon). 



J 1 

( I have been writing {progressive.) 
had written {common). 
had been writing {progressive.) 



■■ n ± n » f I na -d written (common) 
II. Past Perf. < 

III Ft P rf / * S ^ a ^ ^ ave wr * fcten {common). 



I. Present 



II. Past 



III. Future 

6* 



shall have been writing {progressive). 

PASSIVE FORM. 

The house is built {common form). 

The house is building {progressive form). 

The house has been built {perfect). 

The house has been building {perf. prog.). 

The house was built {common form). 

The house was building {prog. form). 

The house has been building {perfect). 

The house has been building {perf. prog.). 

The house will be built {common form). 

The house will be building {progressive form). 

The house will have been built {perfect). 

The house will have be.en building {perf. prog.). 



M TENSE OF THE VERB. 

198. The potential mode has four tenses, each having 
two forms. 

Divisions. Tenses. Forms. 

( n ( I may, can. or must write (common form). 

Pres. Tense < T . . . J ' 

( 1 may, can, or must be writing {progressive form). 
„ ^ , ( I may, can, or must have written (common form). 
Pres. Perf. < T , , , \. . J ' 

{ I ■!■ may, can, or must have been writing (prog. form). 

II might, could, would, or should write (common 
form). 
I might, could, would, or should he writing (prog, 
form). 

(I might, could, would, or should have written (com- 
monform). 
I might, could, would, or should have been writing 
[ (prog, form). 

(a.) The passive is formed in the same manner by using, with the passive 
participle, written, be in the present, might, could, would, or should be, in the 
past, — may. can, or must have been, in the present perfect, might, could, would, or 
should have, in the past perfect ; as, " The letter may be written, might be written, 
may have been written, might have been written," 

199. The subjunctive mode has a distinct form only in 
the present and past. 

[For examples, see Conjugation in the Appendix] 

200. The imperative mode has but one tense, with three 
forms. 

Write (common form). 
Pres. Active. -I Be thou writing (prog. form). 
Do thou write (emphatic form). 

Be thou loved (common form). 



1 Do thou be loved (emphatic form). 

201. The infinitive has two tenses, each having two 
forms : — 

Division. Tenses. Forms. 

{_, f To write (common form). 

' \ To be writing (progressive form). 
_ _. , ( To have written (common form). 
Pres Perf < . 

( To have been writing (j)rogressive form). 

(a.) The passive is formed by placing before the passive participle, to be. to have 
been; as, to be loved, to have been loved. 



TENSE OF THE VERB. 67 



202. The participle has three forms : — 



Present. . . . Writing. 

Past Written. 

Perfect. . . . Having written. 

(a.) Analogy would seem to require the following arrangement of the parti- 
ciples : — 

. Pres. Tense Writing 

I. Present J b 



{ 






Pres. Perf Having written. 

Past Tense Written. 

t Per/. 



But written, as a past participle with an active signification, wants some of 
the essential properties of a participle. [See Greene's Eng. Gram. p. 98.] 

203. Auxiliary verbs are those which are used in conju- 
gating other verbs. They are, — 

Pres. Do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must. 
Past. Did, was, had, should, would, might, could, - 

(a.) The auxiliaries were originally principal verbs, and some of them are still 
used as such. 

204. The auxiliary verbs are used to form the modes 
and tenses of other verbs, and to give to the forms in 
which they are used the shades of meaning peculiar to 
their original signification. 

(a.) In the early stages of the language, these verbs were undoubtedly used as 
principal verbs, followed and modified by the infinitive of what is now called the 
principal verb ; as, may go, can read, must sing ; like the Latin "Possum scribere," 
or the French "Je puis aller," or the German "Ich kann schreiben." Finally, the 
subordinate infinitive came to be regarded as the principal verb, and that on 
which it depended became its auxiliary. 

(6.) The auxiliaries should be regarded merely as relation-words, or words 
used to show relations of time and mode, as the preposition is used to show rela- 
tions of time, place, origin, cause, manner, property, material, etc. In fact, all 
words used to show a relation of whatever nature, such as prepositions, relative 
pronouns, and conjunctive adverbs, are a species of auxiliary. In the growth of 
the language these auxiliaries have increased in number, and in the same ratio 
the inflection of the principal word has diminished. An exact and familiar 
acquaintance with their various uses is essential to a correct knowledge of the 
language. 



68 



MODELS FOR PARSING THE VERB. 



205. The auxiliaries, as such, have only two tenses — 
the present, and the past, — except must, which has no varia- 
tion. They may be thus represented : — 



Present 





Singular. 






Plural. 




1st Per. 


2d Per. 


3d Per. 


1st Per. 


2d Per. 


3d Per. 


I. 


Thou. 


He. 


We. 


You. 


Tney. 


Am 


art 


is 


are 


are 


are 


Do 


dost 


does 


do 


do 


do 


Have 


hast 


has 


have 


have 


have 


Will 


wilt 


will 


will 


will 


will 


Shall 


shalt 


shall 


shall 


shall 


shall 


May 


mayst 


may 


may 


may 


may 


Can 


canst 


can 


can 


can 


can 


Must 


must 


must 


must 


must 


must 


Was 


wast 


was 


were 


were 


were 


Did 


didst 


did 


did 


did 


did 


Had 


hadst 


had 


had 


had 


had 


Would 


wouldst 


would 


would 


would 


would 


Should 


shouldst 


should 


should 


should 


should 


Might 


mightest 


might 


might 


might 


might 


Could 


couldst 


could 


could 


could 


could 



PasH 



Suggestion. — The pupil should now study the several forms of conjugation 
found in the Appendix. 



Models for Parsing the Yerb. 

206. Analyze the sentences according to the models, and 
parse the verbs. 

The boy is diligent. = a S P. 

Is is an irregular intransitive verb (principal parts, be, 

was, been), in the indicative mode, present tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with its 
subject, " boy ;" according to Rule IV., " The verb 
must agree," etc. 

James should have come.= S P. 
Should have come is an irregular intransitive verb, in the potential 
mode, past perfect tense, third person, singular 
number, and agrees with its subject, "James;" 
according to Rule IV. 



MODELS FOR PARSING THE VERB. 69 



Depart. = S P. 

Depart is a regular intransitive verb, in the imperative 

mode, present tense, second person, singular num- 
ber, and agrees with thou understood ; according to 
Kule IV. 

When the subject or any other part of a proposition is omitted, it is said to be 
understood. 

Children should obey their parents. = S P o. 
Should obey .... is a regular transitive verb (principal parts, obey, 
obeyed, obeyed), active voice, potential mode, past 
tense, third person, plural number, and agrees with 
its subject, "children;" according to Rule IV. 

The learner will notice that " should obey," the past tense of the potential, 
scarcely denotes any distinction of time, but a universal obligation. 

He is deceived. = S P. 

Is deceived is a regular passive verb (transitive verb, passive 

voice), (principal parts, deceive, deceived, deceived), 
in the indicative mode, present tense, third person, 
singular number, and agrees with its subject, " he ;" 
according to Rule IV. 

The uses of the subjunctive, infinitive, and the participles will be explained 
hereafter. 

207. Write subjects to the following verbs : — 

Teach, instruct, learn, speak, say, utter, weep, lament, rejoice, 
bloom, laugh, move, bring, obey, try, bite, dance, fight, praise, 
censure, adorn, wound, punish, devour, croak, whistle, amuse, disturb, 
be committed. 

208. Let the first twelve be in the indicative mode, two in 
each tense. 

Ex. — Present. John teaches; James instructs. 
Past. He learned; We spoke. 

209. Let the next twelve be in the potential mode, three in 
each tense. Write the remainder in the imperative mode. 
Give the infinitive and participles to ten of the above verbs. 



70 EXERCISES AND GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 

210. Examine carefully the list of irregular verbs (Appen- 
dix), and apply appropriate subjects to the following, putting 
them in the past and past perfect tenses : — 

Begin ; choose ; come ; do ; drive ; fly ; forsake ; freeze ; go ; hear ; 
lade ; lay ; lie ; mean ; rise ; set ; sit ; slay ; speak ; steal ; swear ; 
take ; teach ; threw ; write ; sow ; sew. 

211. Analyze and parse the following sentences, applying the 
four rules which are used in the construction of the subject 
and predicate. (See the preceding models for analyzing 
and parsing.) 

John was a disciple. Jesus was betrayed. David is called the 
psalmist. You can learn. He will be writing. He had been defeated. 
Stop. Be active. Become a soldier. They should be industrious. 
He might have been captured. George may have returned. Do be 
still. Henry will have been planting. I spoke. Do stay. Can we 
slay ? Who is speaking ? Did he write. Be gone ! 



General Suggestions. — 1. The preceding exercises may be sufficient to give 
to the pupil a knowledge of the general properties of the subject and the predi- 
cate, both separately and in combination. They should be multiplied at the 
discretion of the teacher. 

(a.) But the mere knowledge of the true form or the true principle is not suffi- 
cient. Careless and perverse habits are to be overcome, and correct habits to be 
established. Nothing but continued and persevering practice can secure these 
ends. 

2. The learner is in danger of errors in this and other combinations, — First, 
From ignorance of what the laws of language require. Second, From an estab- 
lished habit of using false constructions, even when he knows the true. Third, 
From inattention and carelessness during the process of forming the sentence. 

(a.) The remedy for the first is the study of grammar and persevering prac- 
tice in analyzing and carefully noting the sentences of good writers; and espe- 
cially in constructing, reconstructing, and giving new turns to sentences of his 
own. 

(b.) The remedy for the second is a resolute and an unwavering determination 
to overcome all such habits, accompanied by watchfulness and care on the part 
of the teacher and those with whom he associates. The discouraging feature of 
this difficulty is that the habit betrays one when he is off his guard, and when 



EBBOBS PERTAINING TO THE SIMPLE SUBJECTS. 71 

he is using language unconsciously to express an engrossing thought. The 
pupil should be made fully aware of the fact and of the character of the error. 
He should cherish a disgust for it and a strong desire to eradicate it. He 
should charge his own ear to give him warning, till he himself shall/e<?Z that his 
language is wrong. He should write the true form and the false side by side, 
and repeat the former again and again, as he wpuld a new phrase, or as he 
would correct a misspelled word. 

(c.) The remedy for the third is care and painstaking practice, in holding the 
attention to the subject, as the germ of the whole sentence, and in developing 
the thought as a natural outgrowth from it, and that without change of plan or 
purpose during the progress of construction. The strictest attention to the use 
of capitals, punctuation-marks, spelling, etc., is also requisite. 



Cautions and Directions for Special Cases. 

212. Bear in mind that as the predicative combination 
is the most central and vital, so the many errors occurring 
in it are the most conspicuous and fatal. 

(a:) By far the greatest number of errors, especially in conversation, will be 
found at the very part of the sentence which should be kept most free. 

213. Be careful, in applying the predicate to its subject, 
that both take the true form, and that their combination 
shall express the thought intended. 

(a.) In both these respects, the intuitive processes which have given to every 
child his mother tongue have also led to ^permanent habit. So far as that habit 
is correct, he will unconsciously use the right forms to express his thoughts with 
or without the rules of grammar. All that grammar can do for him is to bring 
into conscious recognition, and then into distinct statement, the latent law which 
he has unwittingly obeyed. It enables him to verify, confirm, and explain his 
good habit. So far as his habit is wrong, it will furnish the principle that 
condemns, but not the power that overcomes it. The remedy must come from 
personal effort. Spirited conversations will reveal the defect, but nothing short 
of a complete and cheerful surrender of the pupil to faithful criticism can ever 
remove the evil. 



Errors pertaining to the Simple Subjects. 
214. Most of these will be found to be habitual. 

(a.) Avoid the ungrammatical forms, me, him, his, us, them, and whom, 
when the pronouns are used as subjects. 



72 ERRORS PERTAINING TO THE COMPLEX SUBJECT. 

These are to be found chiefly in the conversations of the ignorant, but are 
sure to greet the ear of the teacher. Say, Those are mine, not them are mine. Be 
careful not to couple any one of these with a noun as subject. Say, James and 
2", he, or she went, not James and me, him, or her. Be careful not to use any of 
these in answer to such questions as, "Who is there ? Say, I, he, she, etc., not me, 
him, her: so also after than or as; say, Jane is taller than /, not me. She is as 
old as he, not him. 

(b.) Regard the form you as plural, although you address but one person. 
Say, George, were you at the concert? not was you. 

(c.) In general, however, the pronoun, whether personal, relative, or interroga- 
tive, must take its person, number, and gender from the antecedent or noun which 
it represents. 

215. The following are instances in which errors occur 
partly from habit and partly from inattention to the true 
subject yet to come. 

(a.) Be careful not to use a singular verb after there, here, where, whence, or 
thence, when the coming subject is to be plural. Say, There are many such, not 
there is many such. Here come the soldiers, not here comes. The following are 
wrong, — Whence comes these commotions ? Hence follows his conclusions. The 
ear is in danger of being deceived by the word which immediately precedes the 
verb in any inverted construction. The object is sometimes taken for the sub- 
ject. Thus, What avails good promises if they are never fulfilled? 

(b.) In the use of collective nouns as subjects, consider whether you intend to 
take the whole group as one object, or as composed of individuals, and form the 
predicate accordingly. Say, The assembly is in session, not are in session. The 
school has begun, not have begun. The jury have disagreed, not has disagreed. 
The people are voting, not is voting. 



Errors pertaining to the Complex Subject. 

216. When the subject takes the complex form, the 
attention is often attracted from the true subject to some 
modifier of it. 

(a.) This often occurs when each, either, neither, some one, or any one is modi- 
fied by a plural substantive. Say, Each of the men was present, not were pre- 
sent. Either of the two is competent, not are competent. 

(6.) In long sentences we are in danger of losing sight of the true subject, 
especially when the predicate comes next after a plural noun, thus: The union 
of the Alleghany and the Monongahela rivers form the Ohio. It should he forms. 



EBBOBS IN THE COMPOUND SUBJECT, AND ATTRIBUTE. 73 



Errors pertaining to the Compound Subject. 

217. So when the subject takes the compound form the 
verb is often misapplied. 

(a.) Say, He and I are to attend school, not is or am. Say, Every book and 
every paper was taken from its place, not were taken. Say, This scholar and 
historian was honored by his friends, not were honored. Say, The horse and 
chaise is ready, not are ready. 

For the explanation of these cases see Rule XII. and special cases. 

Errors in the Form and Use of the Yerb. 

218. Be careful to use the right form of the verb. 

(a.) Say, I did it, not done it. He has ivritten a letter, not he has wrote. The 
following are wrong: The river has overflown its banks. I seen him when he 
run away. The steamer was spoke yesterday. The poor fellow was drownded. 
I meant to have went yesterday. Git out of my way. I wrote to-day. 

(b.) Avoid such contractions as ain't, 'tain't, gin' em, etc., etc. 

(c.) Avoid an incorrect use of the auxiliaries have, shall, will, may, can. Say, 
I shall be obliged to you, not, I will. He will be persuaded, not he shall be, 
etc. May I leave the room ? not, can I. He ought to write, not he had ought. 
I would rather starve than beg, not I had rather. 

(d.) Avoid a mistaken use of the verb itself. Say, He sat upon the ground, 
not set — by no means sot. The child has lain down, not has laid. The ship lies 
at anchor, not lays. Never say, He learned me arithmetic. The sun arose at six, 
and sat at six ; rise your hands ; I will come to your house if you will go to 
mine. 

Errors in the Attribute. 

219. Avoid the use of the wrong form. 

(a.) Be careful to use the nominatives he, she, we, they, who, not the objectives 
him, her, us, them, whom. 

Never say, It is me, him, her, us, etc. Say, Who do they say he is? not 
whom. 

(b.) Say, It is his, hers, oars, yours, theirs, never, It is hisn, hern, ourn, 
yourn, theim. 

220. Be careful that the predicate noun correctly identi- 
fies the subject. 

Say, A noun is the name of an object, not, a noun is an object. A verb is a 
word which expresses action, not, A verb is an action. 
1 



74 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

221. Be careful not to use the second attribute after a 
copulative verb as an adverb. Say, The rose smells 
sweet y not sweetly. That expression sounds right, not 
rightly. 

222. In writing, establish the habit at the outset of 
using capital letters at the beginning, and of placing a 
period ( . ) at the end of every declarative or imperative 
sentence, an interrogation point (?) at the end of every 
interrogative sentence, and an exclamation point (!) at the 
end of every exclamatory sentence. 

223. Be careful also to apply the appropriate marks for 
quotations ( " " ), for the division of words at the end of a 
line hyphen ( - ), for the omission of a word or a letter 
caret ( A ), and especially the apostrophe ( ' ) for the 
possessive case, and the period ( . ) for abbreviations. 

Miscellaneous Examples to be Corrected. 

224. Write correctly the folloioing false constructions, and 
note especially any which you are in the habit of using, 

I had rather let you go to the party. We ain't the ones that done it. Per- 
haps I will come to-morrow. Can I be excused ? Never mind, ) 7 ou shall find 
the purse. I will be afraid if it is dark. I know I will drown, no one shall 
help me. Hadn't I ought to stay ? Jane had rather read than not. Hain't 
you began yet? I am e'en a'most froze. My teacher is going to learn me arith- 
metic. Him and I set in the front row. If I had been her, we should have 
spoke. Did you say it. was them ? The captain with all the crew were lost. 
Harold dare not contradict him. If any one wishes for the flowers, they may 
have them. Every one of the children were to blame. One added to eleven 
make a dozen. The study of Greek and Latin roots are very important. What 
avails all your efforts in this cause ? Neither of these hypotheses are correct. 
The result of all these trials were then seen. Neither of them were right. 
Every hour bring its allotted task. The committee was not united. The herd of 
cattle were feeding quietly. Neither Robert nor his brother were qualified for 
admission. Him and me is good friends. The board of directors were in session. 



SECTION IV. 

ADJECTIVE OR ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATION.— FIRST SUB- 
ORDINATE ELEMENT. 

Attributive Combination. 

225. Any attributive, or any substantive used to modify 
another substantive, forms with the latter an attributive 
combination. 

Ex. — Graceful manners. Jack the giant-killer. Jacob's ladder. 

(a.) It has been seen that the subject is susceptible of certain inflections 
which indicate its person, number, and gender. These changes are properly 
called modifications of the subject, since they restrict its application to some per- 
son or thing affected by one or more of these .properties. But we may still 
further modify its meaning or the extent of its application by means of the 
attributive combination. This combination differs from the predicative in the 
mode of uniting the terms. In the predicative the union is affirmed; in the 
attributive, assumed; both have a substantive as the principal term and an 
attributive as the subordinate. 

226. The principal element is the subject, or the sub- 
stantive in some other relation ; and the subordinate is the 
adjective, the participle, or the substantive performing the 
office of the adjective. 

Ex. — This peasant girl was self-educated = 2 a S P; the eagle, lord of land 
and sea. 

227. This combination adds to the sentence a new ele- 
ment, called the adjective element. 

(a.) Some nouns are sufficiently definite without additional words; such as 
proper nouns, William, Philadelphia; many of the abstract nouns, goodness, 
virtue, vice; many nouns denoting substance, as, grass, wood. 

(6.) Pronouns being used to denote the relation of the subject to the speaker, 
or referring to nouns which have before been introduced and sufficiently limited, 
seldom receive additional words. 

75 



A TTRIB UTI VE COMBINA TIOX. 



(c.) All such additional words are called modifiers, because they modify, limit, 
restrict, or explain the meaning or the application of the subject. 

■228. The subject, considered apart from the adjective 
element, is called the grammatical subject, or simply the 
subject, symbol S. 

229. The subject, taken with the words which limit it, 
is called the complex or logical subject, symbol a S. 

(a.) The adjective element generally answers the questions, Whatf What 
kind f How many ? Whose f 

230. All modifiers of the subject, or of the substantive 
in any of its relations, affect either its meaning or the 
extent of its application. 

(a.) The substantive has two distinct yet related capacities or functions, 
namely, one by which it expresses the meaning or the common attributes which 
characterize every individual of a class ; the other, that by which it extends to 
or names every individual in it. Thus, man means those peculiar attributes called 
human which distinguish every individual of the class from every other object, 
while at the same time it names and extends to every human being. The former 
is called its content or meaning ; the latter, its extent or its power to apply to 
individuals. It may be modified in both these functions. 

231. The subject (or substantive generally) may be 
modified : — 

1. By attributives proper, — 

(a.) With no increase of meaning, but with a decrease in the extent of its 
application; as, fen men ; these rules; many birds ; other days. 

Here it will be seen that ten men does not vary our conception of the indi- 
viduals, but it decreases and fixes definitely the number considered ; these rules 
are the ones before us, not definitely named, but are not modified or varied in 
character by these. 

(b.) With an increase of meaning, and a corresponding decrease in the extent 
of its application ; as, good men ; wise rulers ; tall trees. 

Observe, here, that while men alone expresses all that is meant by human, 
without reference to the qualities good or bad, good men directs attention to a 
class having tbe two qualities human and good, hence an increase of meaning. 
But while the term men embiaces every human being, good men sets aside the 
whole class bad men; hence, a decrease in the extent of application. Here we 
modify both the meaning and the application. 



ARTICLES. 11 



2. By substantives, used attributively, — 

(a.) To identify or explain it; as, My lord the king ; Paul the apostle. 

Observe, here, (1) that a substantive is used to modify a substantive ; (2) that 
the modifying substantive adds to the meaning and limits the application of the 
modified by resuming it under another name expressive of the capacity, office, or 
r ink in which it is to be regarded. It is, however, often immaterial which of 
*the substantives is made principal ; it is virtually the same whether we say, the 
apDstle John, or John the apostle; President Madison, or Madison the president. 
In one case we may name the class and place the person in it ; in the other, we 
name the person and place him in the class. 

(6.) To represent it as an object possessed; as, Washington's administration; 
My fathers house. 

Here, administration is limited in the extent of its application to that one of 
which Washington was the head. 

(c.) To add a meaning like an adjective, and thereby to decrease the extent of 
its application ; as, Boston (not Bostonian) notions ; variety store. By a general 
law of language, when one noun thus enters into combination with another, the 
modifying noun either takes on an adjective ending, as, gold, gold-m, leather, 
leathern, or is joined by a hyphen so as to form a compound word; as, wood- 
house — a house for storing wood, not wooden house = a house built of wood. 
But, by a peculiar English idiom, a noun without change of form or the use of 
the hyphen may be prefixed to another noun so as to act the part of an adjective 
without wholly losing its character as a noun ; as, An iron chest. 

Attributives or Adjective Words. 

232. All attributives, articles, adjectives, and participles 
are divided into two classes, limiting and qualifying. 

233. A limiting adjective is used to define or restrict the 

application of a noun, without expressing any of its 
qualities or modifying its meaning. 

Ex. — The house. Five books. Many horses. 

Articles. 

234. The particular limiting adjectives the, and a or an, 

are called articles. 

235. Tlie is called the definite article, because it points 
out some particular thing ; as, " The desk," " The sun." 



78 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

236. A or an is called an indefinite article, because it 
does not point out any particular thing; as ; " A pen;" 
" An orchard." 

(a.) An is used before a vowel sound, and a before a consonant sound ; as, 
"An apple;" " A pin." 



Pronominal Adjectives. 

237. Those limiting adjectives which may, without the 
use of the article, represent a noun when understood, are 
called pronominal adjectives. 

Ex. — That [book] is his. This is yours. 

238. Qualifying adjectives may represent a noun when 
understood, but the article must be prefixed. 

Ex. — The good are happy. 

(a.) The principal pronominal adjectives are, this, that, these, those, former, 
latter, which, what, each, every, either, neither, some, one. none, any, all, such, 
many, much, other, another, whole, both, few, fewer, fewest, first, little, less, 
least, more, most, own, same, several, sundry, certain, divers, enough. 

239. When such adjectives represent a noun understood, 
they are generally called pronouns. 

(a.) They may more properly be called pronominal adjectives used as nouns ; 
as, " This is my book." The articles never represent a noun understood. 

240. Among the pronominal adjectives may be dis- 
tinguished, — 

1. Distributives, or those which point out objects taken singly. 
They are each, every, either, neither. 

2. Demonstratives, or those which point out objects definitely, 
showing which is meant. 

They are this, that, these, those, former, latter, same. 

3. Indefinites, or those which point out objects indefinitely. 
They are some, one, none, all, any, whole, such, other, another. 

4. Reciprocals, or those which are reciprocally related. 
Thev are each other, one another. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 79 

The possessives of the personal pronouns are by some reckoned as pronominal 
adjectives; namely, my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, you, yours, his, her, hers, 
its, their, theirs. It is better to regard them as the possessive case of the 
pronouns. 

241. These, those, all, many, both, few, fewer, fewest, 
several, sundry, usually require a noun in the plural. 

Ex. — These days. Those plants. 

242. Either and neither are used with reference to two 
things only. When more than two objects are referred to, 
any and none should be used. 

Ex. — Take either road ; both are bad enough, and neither will suit you. Any 
of the four plans will meet with favor. 

243. This refers to the nearer or last-mentioned object; 
that, to the more remote or first-mentioned. 

244. One and other are declined thus : — 



Nom. 


Sing. 

One, 


P!ur. 

Ones, 


Nom. 


Sing. 

Other, 


Plur. 

Others, 


Pos. 


One's, 


Ones', 


Pos. 


Other's, 


Others', 


Obj. 


One, 


Ones. 


Obj. 


Other, 


Others. 



Numeral Adjectives. 

245. Numeral adjectives are those which express number. 

Ex. — One, two, three, first, second, etc. 

246. Numeral adjectives are divided into,— 

1. Cardinal, which denote how many. 
Ex. — One, two, three, etc. 

2. Ordinal, which show which one of a series. 
Ex. — First, second, third, etc. 

3. Multiplicatives, or those which show repetition or how many fold. 

Ex. — Twice, or twofold ; thrice, or threefold, fourfold, etc. 

(a.) When the numeral is used as a noun, the cardinal, like the pronominal 
adjective, takes no article; the ordinal has the article prefixed. 
Ex. — Two only were present. The third was lost. 



80 QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. 



Qualifying Adjectives. 

247. Qualifying adjectives (98) have the double effect of 
modifying the meaning and limiting the application of 
substantives. 

Ex. — A virtuous man. A running horse. 

248. To this class of adjectives belong the participles, 
which have the signification of the verb and the construction 
of the adjective. 

249. When the participle is placed before the noun 
which it modifies, it is called a participial adjective. 

Ex. — The rising sun. 

(a.) When it is placed after the noun, or is itself limited by other words, it 
is parsed as a participle. 

Ex. — The sun rising in the east. 

250. When a qualifying adjective represents an object 
understood, either definite or indefinite, the article the 
must be placed before it. 

Ex. — The wise [persons] ; the benevolent [ones] ; the beautiful, the good, and 
the true. 

(a.) When a quality is used abstractly, the adjective is changed to an abstract 
noun. 

Ex. — Wise, wisdom; beautiful, beauty. 

For the comparison of adjectives, see (153). 



Exercises in Forming the Attributive Combination. 

251. Apply qualifying adjectives to the subjects of the 
following propositions : — 

Maxim is given. Scriptures teach. Men desire. Reproof hardens. 
Habits should be avoided. Counsels were given. Character shines. 
Cottage stood. 

Apply and explain the symbols a S P. 



EXERCISES FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 81 

252. Write 'predicates to the following subjects, limiting each 
subject by some qualifying adjective or participle : — 

Lady, paper, lord, cousin, light, darkness, ambassador, army, 
commissioner, tiger, traitor, tutor, pupil, window, cellar, chamber, 
chancellor, monk, friar, countess. 

Ex. — The good lady assisted = 2 a S P. 

253. Write subjects to the following predicates, and let each 
be limited by a limiting and a qualifying adjective : — 

Was prepared; was made; was served up; had scattered; is 
desirable ; were tamed ; is delightful ; had arrived ; can jump ; might 
have slept; did eat; could fight; was avoided; could have been 
stopped ; may be upset ; was emptied ; was prostrated. 

Ex. — That sumptuous feast was prepared = 2 a S P. 

Rule and Exercises for Analyzing and Parsing. 

254. Adjectives used as modifiers should be parsed by 
the following rule. (See Eule III.) 

Rule V, — An adjective or a participle, used as a 
modifier, belongs to the noun or pronoun which it 
limits. 

255. Study the following Models. 

Tall oaks bend = aS P. 
It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 

Oaks is the subject, because it represents that of which 

the action "bend" is affirmed. 

Bend is the predicate, because it represents the action 

affirmed of " oaks." 

Oaks (the subject) is limited by "tall," an adjective element of the 
first class, denoting the kind (tall) of oak. 

Tall Oaks is the complex subject. 

Tall is a qualifying adjective, of the positive degree 

(compared, tall, taller, tallest), and is used as a modi- 
fier of the subject; according to Eule V., "An ad- 
jective or a participle, used as a modifier, belongs to 
the noun or pronoun which it limits." 



82 SUBSTANTIVES USED ATTRIBUTIVELY.— APPOSITION. 

This truth is clear. 

Analyze thus- — S= truth, P = is clear, a = this, a $ = this truth, the complex 
subject. 

This is a limiting adjective (not compared), and is a 

modifier of the subject; according to Rule V. 
Clear is also an adjective, but it is used as the predicate of the proposition 
(not a modifier), and is parsed by Rule III. 

Bengal tigers are ferocious =a S P; S = tigers, P = are ferocious, 
a = Bengal, aS = Bengal tigers, the complex subject. 

Bengal ...... is a limiting adjective, denoting place (not com- 
pared), and is used as a modifier of the subject ; 
according to Rule V. 

256. Analyze the following sentences, symbolize them, and 
parse the adjectives : — 

Subsequent voyages were made. The third expedition was unfortu- 
nate. Severe laws were passed. These inscriptions were copied. 
Modern history should be studied. An erroneous opinion prevailed. 
A republican government was established. Thirty men were captured. 
What trees fell ? Are those people industrious ? What a scandalous 
report ! (Supply " was that.") 



Substantives used Attributively.— Apposition. 

257. The subject may be limited by a noun or pronoun 
used to explain it by designating its office, rank, character, 
or otherwise identifying it. 

Ex. — Peter the hermit preached the first crusade. 

(a.) The limiting noun or pronoun represents the same person or thing as the 
limited noun, and belongs to the general class of appositives ; that is, the class in 
wbich a substantive is made subordinate to another substantive denoting the 
same person or thing. 

(b.) The limiting noun denotes some property (office, rank, etc.) of the subject, 
and is here used as an assumed property, corresponding to the predicate-nomi- 
native, just as the adjective or participle, denoting an assumed property, corre- 
sponds to the predicate-adjective or participle. It is derived from an adjective 
clause whose predicate is a noun. Thus, Peter (who was) the hermit = Peter the 
hermit. 



SUBSTANTIVES USED ATTRIBUTIVELY.— APPOSITION. 83 

258. A noun or a pronoun thus used is said to be in 
apposition with the noun which it limits, and is to be 
parsed by the following rule : — 

Utile VI* — A noun or a pronoun used to explain 
or identify another noun or pronoun is put by appo- 
sition in the same case. 

Ex. — His brother George was absent. 

(a.) When the limiting noun denotes a person, it generally agrees with the 
limited in number, gender, and case. 

(b.) Apposition proper is that special case of appositives in which one noun 
is used to resume the meaning of another noun by taking the grammatical con- 
struction of the latter for the purpose of explanation. It differs from the other 
two appositives in this: they are predicated of a subject by the copula, or of an 
object by a copulative, verb. In " He was captain," the noun is an appositive, 
but not in apposition proper ; it is the attribute of the proposition, and is 
affirmed by was. In " They elected him captain," the noun captain is still an 
appositive (not in apposition), but is made the attributive object, being affirmed 
of the direct object by the copulative verb; that is, he became captain through 
the act of electing. 

(c.) Apposition proper also includes that case of resumption in which the noun 
is repeated, not for explanation or identification, but either for rhetorical effect 
or for a continued enlargement by modifiers. Thus, " He was a criminal — a crimi- 
nal whose very name should be handed down to posterity only to be detested.'' 

In this sense any word, verb, adjective, participle, or adverb, may be in appo- 
sition. " He has falsely accused me of conspiring against my country— -falsely, 
or why has he not made his charges good?" 

259. A noun in apposition is, — 

Restrictive, when it is used to represent one or more individuals as 
belonging to a class, or by limiting a class to one or more individuals ; 
as, " William the Conqueror ;" " The apostles James and John." 

Explanatory, when it is used for amplification, rhetorical effect, or 
argument; as, " Moses, the servant of the Lord, died there in the land 
of Moab ;" " The Lord, the most high God, the possessor of heaven 
and earth." It gives a fine effect to place the explanatory noun at the 
head of the sentence ; as, " A Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope." 

260. Sometimes the noun in apposition is rendered 
emphatic by the use of such connectives as namely, as, to 
wit, that is. 



84 MODELS AND EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 

(a.) Thus, there are three cases, namely, or to wit, the nominative, the possessive, 
and the objective. " So that he, as God, sitteth in the temple of God." Some- 
times of, though always requiring the objective case, denotes apposition ; as, The 
city of Rome = the city, Rome. 

261. A noun is sometimes in apposition with a sentence, 
and sometimes a sentence with a noun. 

Ex. — They devoted their whole time to vain amusements — an act of folly 
which filled me with surprise. They acted the well-known proverb, " It never 
rains but that it pours." 

(a.) There are certain peculiar constructions which seldom occur, such as, 
"John, the Baptist's head ;" " For Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife"= for 
the sake of Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip. When two possessives are 
thus in apposition the rule is to apply the sign ('s) but once, and usually, if not 
always, to the noun which immediately precedes the limited one. In the follow- 
ing cases, " As an author, his ' Adventurer' is his capital work ;" " What do you 
think of my brother's success as a teacher f" the apposition is logically between 
author and his, brother's and teacher, but grammatically it seems to be between 
work and author, success and teacher. To put the two terms which refer to the 
same person in apposition is to make an exception to the rule, and to put the 
two words which are evidently in the same case by virtue of the rule, in appo- 
sition, is to violate the fundamental principle that both mean the same person or 
thing. It is best to say that teacher is in apposition with brother's in sense, but 
takes its case from success. This construction may generally be avoided. 



Models and Exercises for Parsing. 

262. Analyze the following example, and parse Charles. 

King Charles was beheaded. 

It is a simple sentence. Why ? It contains two combinations, the 
predicative, and the attributive. Its form is a S P. S = king; 
P = was beheaded; a = Charles, an adjective element, first class; 
a S = King Charles, the complex subject and the attributive combi- 
nation; 8P = king was beheaded, the predicative combination. 

Charles .... is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, 
nominative case, and is used to identify "king;" 
according to Rule VI., " A noun or pronoun," etc. 

263. Analyze the following sentences, explaining the combi- 
nations and parsing the nouns in apposition : — 



THE SUBSTANTIVE AS ATTRIBUTIVE. 85 

The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. Paul the apostle 
was a martyr. The emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant. Milton the 
poet was blind. The disciple John was beloved. The martyr Stephen 
was stoned. The great navigator Columbus was maltreated. 

264. Write twelve sentences limiting the subject by a noun in 
apposition. 

265. Write in short sentences a brief account of the geog- 
raphy of Pennsylvania. 

The Substantive as Attributive in the Possessive. 

266. The subject may be limited by a noun or pronoun 
which represents it as an object of possession; as, 
"Henry's book fell." 

(a.) This relation does not always denote possession. It may denote the rela- 
tion of persons ; as, " William's cousin ;" or the relation of the doer to the thing 
done; as, "Solomon's Temple;" or the relation of atvhole to its parts; as, "A 
horse's head;" "The dog's foot;" of adaptation or fitness; as "Men's hats;" 
source or origin; as, " Heaven's commands," " The sun's rays." 

(b.) The possessive pronouns, mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, 
are used as nouns, and hence may be employed as predicates when we wish to 
affirm (not assume) possession ; as, " The hook is mine;" " The pen is yours." 

267. A noun or pronoun thus used to limit the subject 
is parsed by the following rule : — 

Mule VII — A noun or pronoun used to limit 
a noun by denoting possession must be in the pos- 
sessive case. 

Ex.— Stephen's courage failed. Her voice is clear. 

268. Instead of the possessive form, the preposition of 
with the objective is often used. 

Ex. — The court of the king = The king's court. 

269. The possessive case may be either assumed or 
predicated. 

Ex. — David's book. This book is David's. 
8 



86 THE SUBSTANTIVE AS ATTRIBUTIVE. 

270. An adjective sometimes, though seldom, intervenes 
between the possessive and the noun on which it depends. 

Ex. — Of man's first disobedience. 

When, in such case, the noun is understood, the possessive sign is annexed to 
the adjective used as a noun ; as, " This is the wretched's only plea." 

271. All possessive constructions may be divided into 
simple, complex, and compound. The construction of simple 
possessives is sufficiently explained by Eule VII. 

272. A possessive is complex when a group of words, 
consisting of a principal and a subordinate term, is put in 
the possessive. Of this there are two cases, — 

(a.) The subordinate noun may be in the objective after a prepo- 
sition ; as, " The Duke of Wellington's sword." 

Here the possessive sign is applied to an inseparable group. Although 
" duke" alone is in the possessive, it would not be improper to regard the whole 
group as a noun in the possessive, limiting " sword." When possession in a sim- 
ilar case is predicated (269), the sign is applied to the simple possessive noun ; as, 
" There shall nothing die of all that is the children's of Israel." Exodus ix. 4- 

(b.) The subordinate noun may be put in apposition with the princi- 
pal noun. 

Here are two cases. (1.) When the subordinate noun unites with the other, 
forming a complex name. In this case the sign of possession is applied to the 
last only, or that nearest the limited noun; as, "General George Washington's 
farewell address. (2.) When the subordinate noun is properly in apposition 
with a possessive noun; as, "For thy servant David's sake;" "At Smith's the 
bookseller." Here the rule is to give the possessive sign to the one immediately 
preceding the governing noun, whether it be the first possessive, as in the second 
example, or the second, as in the first example. 

273. A possessive is compound when the terms composing 
it are co-ordinate ; and here also are two cases : — 

(a.) The co-ordinate terms may individually limit a noun denoting 
one common object. 

Ex. — Gould, Kendall, and Lincoln's store. 

(6.) They may limit the same noun applied to different objects. 

Ex. — Richardson's, Worcester' s, and Webster's Dictionary ; that is, three 
dictionaries. 



MODEL FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 87 

In this case each noun has the sign, because " dictionary " is understood imme- 
diately after it. But iu the other case the group has the sign, which is, by a 
general rule, applied to the noun nearest to the governing word. 

274. Sometimes a possessive and the limited noun unite 
and form a compound, which may be taken, — 

(a.) Literally, and should be written without the possessive sign. 

Ex. — Tradesman, craftsman, ratsbane, doomsday. 

(6.) Metaphorically, in which case it should be written with the 
sign. 

Ex. — Job's-tears, Jew's-ear, bear's-foot, hound' s-tongue, bear' s-breech, lion's- 
tail, wolfs-bane, wolfs-peach, — names of plants. 

275. When a combination, consisting of a possessive and 
its governing noun, is used as an adjective, the sign should 
not be omitted. 

Ex. — A bird's-eye view. A camel' s-hair shawl. Taylor's Kuhner's Greek 
Grammar. Eden's garden bird. 



Model for Analysis and Parsing. 

276. Analyze this example, and parse his. 

His hand trembles = a S P. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 
Hand . . is the subject = S. (Why?) 
Trembles is the predicate = P. (Why?) 
His hand is the complex subject = a S. (Why?) 
Hand . . is limited by "his," an adjective element of the first class, 

denoting whose hand. 
His .... is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, 

possessive case, and is the modifier of " hand ;" according to 

Rule VII. 

277. Analyze the following sentences, parsing the modifier 
of the subject : — 

The rook's nest was destroyed. The bird's beak was broken. Our 
lesson is easy. My task is completed. William's farm is productive. 
Rufus's garden is watered. 



88 CA UTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR SPECIAL CASES. 

278. Write twelve, sentences limiting the subject by a noun 
or pronoun in the possessive case. 

279. Analyze and parse the following miscellaneous ex- 



Three birds flew. The man awoke. Good food was provided. 
Every soldier escaped. All men are mortal. Twenty days have 
passed. Your lesson is easy. Wisdom's ways are pleasant. The 
king's council. Might have been able. John the Baptist was 
beheaded. The planet Venus has risen. Sirius, the dog-star, is 
visible. Boston, the capital, is populous. The goddess Discord was 
offended. Beautiful plants were sold. Old iron is wanted. Becket 
the archbishop was considered a martyr. The east wind is disagree- 
able. A winter scene was represented. A sunburnt urchin came in. 
The merry dance commenced. 

280. Write sentences illustrating the four hinds of modi- 
fiers. 

281. Give an outline of the successive steps in addition 
without thinking of grammatical forms. After the work is 
done y point out the different adjective elements. 



Cautions and Directions for Special Cases. 

282. Bear in mind that the attributive combination 
either, — 

1. Adds to the meaning of the subject, and thus limits the extent of 

its application by assuming attributes which the mind has already 
predicated of it, or, — 

2. Simply limits the extent of its application without modifying its 
meaning. 

(a.) We affirm, and thereby express what we noiv think ; we assume, and 
thereby use what we have thought. The attribute, once predicated of the subject, 
may ever after be added to it, as a part of its meaning. We predicate thoughts, 
never mere limitations of the subject ; hence, purely limiting adjectives are never 
predicated. 



CA UTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR SPECIAL CASES. 89 



283. In speaking or writing, limiting adjectives require 
special attention. 

1. Be careful not to misapply those which denote number. 

Say, this sort of people, not these sort; that kind of books, not those kind; 
four feet, not four foot. 

(a.) In applying an or a to singular nouns, especially when repeated, be 
careful to notice the initial sound of the next word. Say, a union, not an union. 
Instead of saying, A horse, ox, and sheep were grazing by the roadside, say, A 
horse, an (not a) ox, and a sheep. 

(b.) Avoid as vulgar the use of them, that'ere, this'ere, for those, that, and 
ihis; say, those books, not them books; that house, not that'ere; this pen, not 
this'ere. 

(c.) In using adjectives which refer to the whole or to certain parts of a 
number, be careful to distinguish their special use. In respect to two, say both 
brothers, for the two together. — either, for one or the other, — neither, for not one, 
not the other, — each other, for the two regarded reciprocally. 

In respect to more than two, say, all the jurymen, when you take the twelve 
together, — each, any, or any one (never, either), when you regard all, but take 
them one by one as separated and contrasted with the others, — every, or every 
one, when you regard all, but take them individually, — some, when you regard 
an indefinite number less than all, but more than one, — no one, when you would 
deny all, taken individually (never, neither), — none, or no, when you deny all, 
but regard them either individually or in groups, — one another (not each other), 
when you regard them reciprocally, — each, taken one by one, in contrast with 
all the rest. 

The following are wrong : — I do not know either of the stars. The particles 
move freely amongst each other. Neither of the books in the library give me 
the needed information. 

(d.) Such denotes resemblance to one or more, either already mentioned, or to be 
named after as, and must not be used for so. Say, He was so inquisitive a man, 
not such an inquisitive man. 

(e.) In speaking of numbers arranged in groups of two. three, etc., say, the first 
three, the second three, unless by the three first you mean to imply a successive 
removal of numbers one and two, in which case each of the three, in turn, 
becomes first. In general, say, The first hvo, not the two first. 

(/.) Make use of fewer, not less, all, not whole, when you have in mind a 
plurality of objects. Say, There were fewer men than women, not less men. All 
the trees, not the whole trees. 
8* 



yO CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR SPECIAL CASES. 

2. Be careful that the article be omitted, — 

(a.) Before proper nouns, abstract nouns, and nouns denoting substance or 
material, when used in their general signification. Say, Gold is abundant, not 
the gold. 

(6.) Before the participle, used as a noun, with the limitations of the verb. 
Say, Travelling by steamboat, not the travelling. 

(c.) Before a common noun used in the full extent of its signification. 

Ex. — Man is mortal. Woman is justly appreciated only in civilized countries. 
The lizard is a kind of reptile. 

Contrary to this rule, the is often used before a noiin in the singular to denote 
the whole class, and must be distinguished from the cases in which the points out 
an individual object by a careful attention to the connection. Thus, we have the 
lizard, as above, the horse, the bee, the oak. the ash, the dahlia. The horse is a 
noble animal. The horse is lame. Go to the ant, thou sluggard. TJie ant was 
drowned in the cup. 

(d.) Before a noun denoting a mere title or a name used as a word. 
Ex. — Ye call me Master and lord. Acorn is derived from ac, oak, and corn, 
grain. 

(e.) Before any common noun already limited by one of the definitives any, 
each, either, every, much, neither, no. or none, some, this, that, these, or those, 
or by any other words which make its meaning sufficiently definite. 

3. Be careful that the article be inserted, — 

(a.) Before a common noun used to denote an individual object, or any number 
of individual objects definitely referred to. 

Ex. — The rose which blooms by the wall. 

(b.) Before adjectives used as nouns. 

Ex. — None but the brave deserves the fair. 

(c.) Before participles used wholly as nouns. 

Ex. — For the edifying of the church. 

4. Be careful that the article be repeated, if required at all by 
the preceding rules, — 

(a.) Before proper nouns in the plural, abstract nouns, and nouns denoting 
substance or material, when used with specific reference to an individual example 
(283, 2, a.). 

Ex. — Tlic Y'ebsters. The twelve Tjosars. Ye have heard of the patience of 
Job. Tl\e wood is suffioientlv drv. 



CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR SPECIAL CASES. 91 

(6.) Before each noun of a co-ordinate combination, when the objects, by some 
correspondence or contrast, or by some limitation not common to all, are 
specially distinguished. 

Ex. — The soldiers did not inquire for the number, but the place, of the enemy. 

Here the contrast requires the repetition of the article. 

Ex. — England, during the interval between the Protectorate and the resto- 
ration of the Stuarts, was virtually governed by General Monk. 

Here the omission of the before restoration would refer the Protectorate and 
the restoration alike to the Stuarts. 

(c.) Before each part of a co-ordinate combination employed as an adjective 
element, when the parts apply to objects individually different, yet of the same 
name. 

Ex. — "The northern and the southern boundary," — two very different 
boundaries. " A Bancroft's, a Lossing's, and a Goodrich's history," — three 
different books. " "We had pleasant companions, an Englishman, a Scotchman, 
and a German," — each a companion, but three men. 

By a common usage, justified by standard authority, the article may be placed 
before the first adjective only when the noun is put in the plural at the end of 
the series ; as, "The first, second, and third regiments." It is here supposed that 
the hearer will distribute the adjectives properly. The rule just given, though 
it sometimes renders the construction somewhat formal, secures precision in the 
application of the adjectives; while the omission of the article leaves their 
application doubtful, and hence sometimes endangers the perspicuity of the 
sentence (283, 2, a). 

5. Be careful that the article be not repeated, — 

(a.) Before any of the foregoing combinations when the nouns, as in (a), do 
not express a correspondence or a contrast, or have a common limitation, or 
the modifiers, as in (6), belong to a common object. 

Ex. — " The men, women, and children of the party suffered alike," — each 
being of the party. " Give me the ripe, red. and mellow peaches," — each being 
ripe, red, and mellow. " He bought a Wheeler and Wilson's sewing-machine," 
— one machine of two patentees. " Dr. Kane, the scholar, naturalist, and 
explorer," — one man with three characteristics. 

(6.) Before the second term of a comparison, where both refer to the same 
person or thing. 

Ex. — He was a better speaker than writer. 

6. The article may be either omitted or repeated, according to the 
degree of prominence to be given. 

Ex. — From top to bottom, or from the top to the bottom. 



92 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED.. 

284. In respect to qualifying adjectives, — 

(a.) It is generally best to employ the comparative degree when two objects 
or sets of objects are compared, and always the superlative when one object or 
one set of objects is compared with the whole class. Say, The wiser of the two, 
not the wisest; but. The wisest of them all, not the wiser. It is common, how- 
ever, among good writers, in fixing upon two as a whole, to employ the super- 
lative ; as, " Which is the largest (of the two), New York or Boston ?" 

(b.) But in making the comparison, the comparative must separate the one 
object or set from the other, so as to present the two exclusively, whereas the 
superlative must present the one as included in the other. Say, Solomon was 
wiser than any other man, not any man; for that would make him wiser than 
himself. But, Solomon was the wisest of men is right. Venus is brighter than 
any of the planets is wrong. So is " Of all others, he most deserves censure;" 
omit others. 

(c.) Extra, or double comparisons should be avoided. Say. Mountain air is 
healthier, not more healthier. The following are wrong, — And loorser far than 
arms ; Against the envy of less happier lands ; The worst may become more 
worse. 

285. In respect to the substantive when used attribu- 
tively. 

(a.) With beginners there is danger of omitting the apostrophe before the s, 
thereby giving the noun the form of the plural. Write, The farmer's reward, 
not the farmers reward. 

(6.) Avoid the possessive form by using the noun with of whenever the use of 
that form occasions an unusual or a disagreeable combination. Say, The end of 
time, not time's end; The truth of the narrative, not the narrative's truth. 

(c.) Be careful to point off with a comma ( , ) the noun in apposition when 
used in an explanatory way, or in any case when modified by a phrase or a 
clause. Thus, Paul, an apostle of Jesus Christ. 



Miscellaneous Examples to be Corrected. 
286. Correct the following examples : — 

I dislike those kind of people. "We shall find these sort of apples 
delicious. I have been here about six year. The street is eighty foot 
wide. She is the oldest of the two sisters. Give me one of them 
books. This is a most universal belief. He holds a lesser place. Let 
each of them suffer the penalty of their crimes. Which is the tallest, 
Jane or I? This knife is not yourn any more than it is hisn. I 
bought this at Brown's & Son's. He hopes to enter an university. 



MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE. 93 

I attended Mrs. Water's party. He suffered for faith's sake. This is 
an hard saying. He works at a shilling a hour. This was the most 
unkindest cut of all. You cannot mix the oil and the water. Rogers 
wrote on the pleasures of the memory. A pen is mightier than a 
sword. The time and the tide wait for no man. He was much 
interested in these good news. The grizzly bear, as well as buffalo, 
are natives of North America. The ship displayed a red and white 
signal, and we distinctly saw them both. The first and second regi- 
ment were called out. I bought an Andrew's and a Stoddard's 
Latin grammar, and forgot to bring it home. What sort of an animal 
is a gorilla? Washington, the patriot, the general, the statesman, is no 
more. The man's hope. Consult Worcester and Webster's Dictionary. 
There is a variety of opinion among historians who wrote on that sub- 
ject. At his father's death he assumed the title of a baron. There 
were less pears than peaches in the basket. He is a greater fool than 
a knave. The copper is abundant on the shores of Lake Superior. By 
the makflig haste to be rich, we often fail of the true ends of life. I 
prefer the going by water. 



SECTION V. 



THE OBJECTIVE COMBINATION.— SECOND SUBORDINATE 
ELEMENT. 

Modifiers of tlie Predicate. 

287. Any word or group of words added to the predi- 
cate to complete its meaning or limit the extent of its 
application is a modifier of the predicate. 

(a.) By certain inflections the predicate can be made to indicate properties not 
essential to it as predicate. These are called modifications of the predicate, 
because they restrict its application to a certain time or in a certain manner. 

(b.) When it is necessary to restrict the application of the predicate by refer- 
ring to properties which cannot be indicated by inflections, other words (as with 
the subject) must be added. 



94 SINGLE OBJECT. 



288. The predicate, considered apart from the words 
that modify it, is called the grammatical predicate, or 
simply the predicate. 

289. When taken in connection with the words which 
modify it, it is called the complex or logical predicate. 

290. When the predicate is a noun, it may be limited, 
like the subject, by an adjective element. 

Ex. — Francis is an industrious boy. 

291. When the predicate is an adjective, it may be 
limited by an adverbial element. 

Ex. — He was awake early. 

This element will be treated of in the next section. 

292. When the predicate is a verb, it may be^limited 
either by an objective or an adverbial element, or both. 

Ex. — The boy studied his lesson carejully. 

Single Object. 

293. The objective element is a word or a group of 

words used to complete the meaning of a verb by answer- 
ing the questions what? whom? to, for, of, or out of what, 
or whom? 

Ex. — He opened (what?) a book, a knife, the door, his hand, his eyes; I gave 
a book to him; they were speaking of him. 

294. The direct objective element denotes what or whom 
the action affects, and becomes the subject when the 
transitive verb assumes the passive form. 

Ex. — Henry struck William. William was struck by Henry. 

295. The indirect objective element is used to denote 
that to, for, of, or out of which the action is exerted, or the 
quality exists. 

Ex. — He gave the book to me = He gave me the book. It seemed good to 
him. He was ambitious of glory. 



EXERCISES FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 95 

(a.) The direct objective element answers the question, whom? or, what? as, 
"He loves (whom?) George." "They broke (what?) the ice." The indirect 
objective answers the question, to, for, of, or out of xohom? or what? and often 
limits an intransitive verb, or even an adjective. It answers to the dative or the 
genitive objects of the Latin, — to or for indicating the dative relation, and of or 
out of the genitive. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish the indirect object 
from an adverbial element. The general rule is, when a substantive is joined 
by a proposition to a verb or an adjective, it is adverbial when it answers to the 
adverbial interrogatives when, where, how, why, how often, how long, to what 
degree, etc. ; otherwise it is objective. In an analytic language like the English, 
it is of little consequence, however, in doubtful cases into which class they fall. 

(6.) The noun or pronoun used as the object has the same modifications of 
number, person, and gender as the subject. The infinitive, as object, retains 
much of its verbal character. It is sometimes questioned whether it should ever 
be called the object. If it can be the subject, it certainly should also be the 
object. Yet to admit it as object, especially of intransitive verbs, somewhat 
enlarges the sphere of the objective relation. 

296. The following rules should be applied in parsing 
the object : — 

Mule VIII, — I. A noun or a pronoun used to 
complete the meaning of a transitive verb or its 
participles must be in the objective case 1 . 

Ex. — We paid /urn. IVhom do you see ? 

Mule VIII, — 2, A noun or a pronoun used to 
complete the meaning of any verb, by shoiuing that 
to, for, of, or out of which the action is exerted, 
must be in the objective case. 

fix. —He gave me a hint. They speak of tardiness. 



Models and Exercises for Analyzing and Parsing. 

297. Study the following models, and analyze other ex- 
amples according to them : — 

Caesar defeated Pompey = S P o. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 

Caesar is the subject = S. 

Defeated is the predicate — P. 



96 DOUBLE OBJECT. 



Defeated is limited by " Pompey = o, an objective ele- 
ment of the first class, denoting whom Caesar 
defeated. 

Defeated Pompey = P o is the complex predicate. 

Pompey is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 

number, masculine gender, objective case, and 
is the object of "defeated;" according to 
Rule VIII. I. 

The thought occurred to me = a S P o ; S = thought; ? = occurred; 
a S = the thought, the complex subject ; Po = occurred to me, the 

complex predicate. 

Me is a personal pronoun, first person, singular 

number, etc., and is the indirect object of 
occurred; according to Rule VIII. 2. 
The use of the preposition will be explained hereafter. 

298. Analyze and symbolize the folloiving sentences, and 
parse the object : — 

Brutus killed Caesar = 8Po. S = Brutus, P = killed, and 

o = Cxsar P o = killed Cxsar ; or in a different form, — 

S = Brutus. o = Cxsar. 

P = Killed. P o = Killed Cxsar. 

o = Cxsar p n— 3d p— S n— ng— oc. Rule VIII. 

Heat overcomes me. The dog pursued a fox. The lion ate a sheep. 
He views the stars. We built a house. The ink soils the carpet. 
Josephus wrote a history. William conquered England. Alfred 
defeated the Danes. Bring a book. Repeat the lesson. He might 
have been leading the army. So it appeared to him. He was desirous 
of glory. 

299. Write subjects and objects to the following words: — 

Led, praise, restrain, know, fear, see, love, admonish, bring, 
correct, frighten, pursue, break, torment, perplex, anno) r , betray, 
sing, open, displace, equip, defend, punish, leave, desire. 



DOUBLE OBJECT. 97 



300. Change the verbs of your written sentences from the 
active to the passive form. 

Ex. — Abraham led Isaac. Isaac was led by Abraham. 

301. Write out the complete solution of the following problem. 

What is the interest of $1725.62, for three years, six months, and 
twenty -nine days, at seven per cent. ? 

Double Object. 

A. Both a person, or both a thing.— Object and attribute. 

302. Copulative verbs of incomplete predication and 
incomplete action are followed by two objects, one denoting 
some person or thing, and the other some attribute of it. 

Ex. — They appointed him president. 

(a.) " President" is an attribute of "him," denoting office, and is an appositive 
affirmed by means of the copulative verb, as will be readily seen when the 
verb takes the passive form with he as its subject, " He was appointed presi- 
dent." 

303. Instead of a substantive, an adjective or a verbal 
attribute, may follow as the attributive object of such 
verbs. 

( an officer . . . (substantive attribute.) 
Ex. — They made the man < jealous .... (adjective attribute.) 
(. labor (verbal attribute.) 

304. "When such verbs assume the passive form, the 
first object generally becomes the subject, and the attri- 
bute remains as a predicate. 

( an officer . . . (substantive attribute.) 
Ex. — The man was made < jealous .... (adjective attribute.) 
(. to labor . . . (verbal attribute.) 

(a.) It not unfrequently happens, however, that the attribute, or second object, 
becomes the subject ; as, "An officer was made of the man." 

(b.) A few verbs only can take, besides an object, & substantive attribute in the 
objective. These are, make, appoint, elect, create, constitute, render, name, 
style, call, esteem, think, consider, regard, reckon, and some others. 
9 



98 DOUBLE OBJECT. 



(c.) The number which, may take an adjective or verbal attribute is much 
greater. 

(d.) It should be observed, respecting either form of the above attributes, — 

(1.) That they are predicated (not assumed). Compare with the example 
above the following, in which the same attributes are assumed. " They made 
the man, an officer," i.e., "who was an officer;" "They made a, jealous man;" 
" They made a laboring man." 

(2.) "When the verb is in the active voice, they are predicated of the object, 
not the subject, of the verb. 

(3.) That the verb (in the active voice) performs the office of a transitive verb, 
governing the first object, and, at the same time, becomes a kind of copula, 
making that object a subject, and the second object its predicate. This latter 
function of the verb is retained when it takes the passive form. See examples, 
above. 

(e.) The infinitive to be, or the participle being, with as, is often placed between 
the object and its attribute; as, " We considered him to be too young," or "as 
being too young." 

305. The attributive object usually expresses the product, 

or effect which the action produces on the principal object, 
and is often introduced by as, or by some preposition. 

Ex. — He named his uncle as his guardian. They counted him for a prophet. 
It shall grind him to powder. It broke the wheel into a thousand pieces. 
Observe, here, that the attributive object represents the principal object in the 
new state produced by the action of the verb. It seems best to consider " for a 
prophet," " to powder," " into a thousand pieces," objects, since they show what 
the principal object has become by the action. 

B. One a person, the other a thing.— Direct and Indirect. 

306. There is another class of verbs followed by two 
objects, one denoting a person, and the other a thing. 

Ex. — He taught me grammar. I ask you your opinion. 

(a.) Neither object, in case of these verbs, is attributive to the other. Both 
are objects of the verb, either direct or indirect. Verbs of asking and teaching 
and some others may take the name of either a person or a thing alone as a 
direct object; as, to ask the teacher, or to ask a question; to teach the pupil, or 
to teach grammar. How is it when both together follow the verb? Are both 
direct, or is one direct and the other indirect f In the classical languages, and in 
most of the Indo-European family of languages, both are direct; and when the 



DOUBLE OBJECT. 99 



verb assumes the passive form, the personal object usually becomes the subject, 
the other remaining as objective or accusative after a passive verb. The English 
admits this construction; as, " I was taught grammar;" "He was asked his 
opinion." The English also admits the name of the thing as the subject; thus, 
" Grammar was taught him," — scarcely to him; " A question was asked him," or 
" He was asked a question." 

307. Most of this class take a direct and an indirect 

object. 

Ex. — They gave him a book, or, a book to him. They offered us a place, or, a 
place to us. 

(a.) The indirect object is generally said to be governed by some proposition, 
expressed or understood. When the verb assumes the passive form, the direct 
object becomes the subject, the indirect object remaining in the objective case, 
with or without the proposition. 

(b.) Sometimes, however, the indirect object becomes the subject, leaving the 
direct object in the objective case after the passive verb; as, " He was refused 
admittance;" "He was denied a hearing." This construction is condemned by 
some grammarians, yet it will be found of frequent occurrence among good 
writers. Such idiomatic expressions as, " The point was lost sight of," " He was 
found fault with," — taken notice of, etc., etc., in which an objective after a passive 
verb is found, are employed by many of our best writers. 

(c.) Some intransitive verbs take after them an object of a kindred signifi- 
cation ; as, " He sang a song ;" " He played a game." Such verbs may take, also, 
an indirect object; as, " I played Mm a tune;" "We struck Aim a blow." So, 
also, many intransitive have a causative meaning, and take one or tiuo objects ; 
as, " They ran a special train for him." 

(d.) The following are some of the verbs which take a direct and indirect 
object: buy, sell, play, sing, find, get, lend, draw, send, make, pass, write, 
pour, give, teach, leave, bring, tell, do, present, throw, carry, ask, show, order, 
promise, refuse, deny, provide. 

308. The two objects may be parsed by the following 
special rules : — 

Mule VIII, — 3. Two substantives, denoting the 
same person or thing, both together being used to 
complete the meaning of a copulative verb, the one 
as principal and the other as attributive object, must 
both be in the objective case. 

Ex. — They made Cromwell dictator. They called his name John. 



100 EXERCISES FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 

Mule VIII. — 4:, Two substantives, denoting dif- 
ferent persons or things, being used to complete the 
meaning of a transitive verb, whether as direct object, 
or one as direct and the other as indirect, must both 
be in the objective case. 

Ex. — He taught me algebra. They sold him a book. They gave the teacher 
an assistant. He warned me oj my danger. They bought oranges for the boys. 

(a.) The objects may then be taken separately, and their relations to each 
other and to the verb may be pointed out. 

(b.) When the attributive object is a noun, it is a predicated appositive of the 
first ; when it is an adjective, a participle, or an infinitive, it is predicated of 
the first, and the two should be taken together as the complement or double 
object of the verb, and then the attributive should be disposed of as completing 
the predication of the verb, and as belonging to the first object. 

(c.) When we have a copulative verb of complete action, the second attribute 
is affirmed of the subject, and not of the object. In this case we have a double 
attribute, the two being used to complete the predication, and neither one to 
complete the action. 



Models and Exercises for Analyzing and Parsing. 

309. Examine the following models, and apply them to sim- 
ilar examples : — 

They made Cicero Consul. = S Poo. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 

They= S is the subject (why?). 

Made = P is the predicate (why ?). 

Cicero Consul = oo is the double object, and is used to complete both 
the action and the predication of made. 

Cicero is the direct and consul the attributive object; 

the former, a proper noun, third person, singular 
number, objective case; the latter, a common 
noun, third person, singular number, objective 
case; they are appositives, both being used as 
objects of made; according to Rule VIII., 3, the 
attributive being an appositive of the direct. 



CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR SPECIAL CASES. 101 



Will you lend me a knife ? = S Poo. 

It is a simple interrogative sentence (why ?). 

S = you; P = will lend; o o 2 = me a knife; P o 2 = will lend me a 
knife. Me is a p p — 1st p — s n — m or f g — o c, the indirect object 
of lend; knife is a c n — 3d p — s n — n g — c, the direct object of 
lend, both together used to complete its meaning according to Rule 
VIII, 4. 

In the example, He was standing a monument of patience— S P P, standing 
and monument are used to complete the predication, and form the double attribute 
of the proposition, monument being parsed as the second attribute by Rule II. 3. 
So when the first example above takes the passive form — Cicero was made 
Consul = S P P — we have the same construction. 

310. Analyze and symbolize the following examples, and 
parse the objects : — 

The people elected John Quincy Adams President. The leaven 
renders the bread porous. What do you call that fruit ? The Lord 
reckoned Abraham's faith as righteousness. He broke the plate into 
four pieces. Give me the history of Spain. What do you think of 
it ? To whom shall I send the package ? Send him a despatch. Did 
they say that of me ? Whom will they appoint his successor ? What 
makes the sky so bright ? 

311. Change the verbs in any of the examples in (310) to 
the passive form, and dispose of the objects or attributes. 

312. Write examples employing the verbs in the list above 
(304. b.) and (307. d.). 



Cautions and Directions for Special Cases. 

313. Let it be remembered that in the objective combi- 
nation a substantive is made subordinate to a verb, some- 
times to an adjective, and is used to complete its meaning 
and thereby limit its application. 



102 NATURE AND USE OF THE ADVERBIAL ELEMENT. 

Ex. — The boy shut (what?) his eyes, his mouth, the door, the gate, the box, the 
window, etc. When the thought requires any one of these, the meaning of the 
verb is limited to that one, to the exclusion of all the others. 

314. Since the noun in English does not change its form 
for this relation, errors are confined chiefly to the use of 
pronouns. 

315. In inverted constructions be careful, when the pro- 
noun is used, to give it the proper form. 

(a.) Say, Whom did you see? not who did you see? The following are 
wrong, " He that did the wrong I shall dismiss." " I cannot tell you who to 
send." " It was his brother who they invited to the party." 

316. In some sections there is a habit of using the 
nominative of the pronoun when it forms a part of the 
compound object. 

Say, He invited you and me, not you and I. Let John and me do it, not John 
and I. 



7 



SECTION VI. 



THE ADVERBIAL COMBINATION.— THIRD SUBORDINATE 
ELEMENT. 

Nature and Use of the Adverbial Element. 

317. A word or a group of words added to an attributive 
to denote some circumstance of place, time, cause, or manner 
is an adverbial element. 

(a.) Such additions are not, like the object, indispensable to complete the 
sense. 

318. The adverbial element, in its simplest state, is a 
single word called an adverb. 



ADVERBS DENOTING PLACE AND TIME. 103 

319. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning 
of an attributive; that is, a verb, an adjective, a participle, or 
an adverb. 

320. Adverbs may be divided into four general classes, 
adverbs of place, of time, of cause, of manner. 

Adverbs Denoting Place. 

321. The predicate may be limited by adverbs of 'place; 
as, " Come hither;" " I see him yonder." 

322. Adverbs of place are used in three relations, — 

1. That of rest in or at a place (where?). 
Ex. — Here, there, yonder, above, below. 

2. That of motion toward a place (whither?). 

Ex. — Hither (toward the speaker), here, eastivardly , westwardly. 

3. That of motion from a place (whence?). 

Ex. — Thither (from the speaker or from any place), thence, aloft, doivmvard, 
upward. 

Adverbs Denoting Time. 

323. The predicate may be limited by adverbs denoting 
time. 

Ex. — He went yesterday. 

324. The time denoted by the adverb is always simul- 
taneous with that of the event. Hence, in relatipn to the 
time of the speaker, an adverb may denote a time present, 
past, or future. 

Ex. — "We are now walking. We walked yesterday. We shall walk hereafter. 

325. Adverbs of time denote, — 

1. A point, answering the question, When? 
Ex. — Once, now, then, soon. 



104 ADVERBS DENOTING CAUSE AND MANNER. 

2. Duration, answering the question, How long? 
Ex. — Always, ever, never, continuously, etc. 

3. Repetition, or frequency, answering the question, How often? 
Ex. — Often, frequently, daily, hourly, etc. 

Adverbs of Cause or Source. 

326. The predicate may be limited by adverbs of cause. 

Ex. — Why did he leave? Wherefore have you come? 

(a.) There are properly no adverbs which denote a cause; they rather inquire 
for one. The adverbial elements which express cause or reason will be found 
hereafter in the form of phrases or clauses. 

Adverbs Denoting Manner. 

327. The predicate may be limited by adverbs denoting 
manner. 

Ex. — The water flows gently. 

(a.) It has been seen that mode is that property of the verb which shows the 
manner of an assertion. The manner of the attribute asserted is shown by 
means of adverbs. 

(b.) Adverbs of manner embrace a large class, ending in ly, formed from 
adjectives denoting quality. They generally answer the questions. How? 
How much? 

(c.) Adverbs answering the question, How? denote quality; those answering 
the question, How much? denote quantity or degree. 

328. Besides those enumerated, there is another class of 
adverbs which show the manner of the assertion, not of 
the attribute. Hence they are called modal adverbs, since 
they affect the manner of the assertion, and not that of the 
action. 

Ex. — Astrology is not a science. The sun had scarcely set. 

(a.) Adverbs of mode affect the degree of certainty with which an attribute is 
affirmed. Beginning with denial, there are modal adverbs applicable to the 
several degrees of doubt, uncertainty, possibility, probability, and certainty; as, 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 105 

"My brother will not come;" "Perhaps he will come;" "Possibly he may 
come;" " He will probably come;" " He will assuredly come." 

(6.) The adjective used to complete the predication of copulative verbs, shows 
what quality the subject or object possesses by virtue of the action ; as, " The 
boy was made sick." 

329. Conjunctive adverbs are complex words usually 
modifying two words, and at the same time joining an 
adverbial clause to the word on which it depends. 

Ex. — We shall be present when the boat arrives. 

This class will be explained more in detail under subordinate connectives. 

330. Interrogative adverbs are used in asking questions. 

Ex.— When? Where f Why? How? Wherefore? Whither? How 
often? etc. etc. 

(a.) These become conjunctive adverbs when the interrogative sentence is 
incorporated into a complex sentence; as, " I know not where he is." 



Comparison of Adverbs. 

331. When it is necessary to show that one predicate 
represents a quality or an action in a higher or lower 
degree than another with which it is compared, the com- 
parison is effected by means of the adverb. 

Ex. — George learned his lesson sooner than James learned his. 

332. Comparison is effected, — 

1. By a change of the word. 
Ex. — Soon, sooner, soonest. 

2. By the use of more and most, or less and least. 

Ex. — Brightly, more brightly, most brightly; likely, less likely, least likely. 

333. Adverbs should be parsed by the following rule : — 

Mule IX. — Adverbs are used to limit verbs, parti- 
ciples, adjectives, and other adverbs. 



106 MODELS FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 

Exercises and Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

334. Analyze — Light moves rapidly. = S P v. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 

Light = S is the subject, because it is that of which the 

action "moves" is affirmed. 

Moves = P is the predicate, because it represents the action 

affirmed of " light." 

Moves rapidly = P a is the complex predicate, because it is the gram- 
matical predicate, with all its limitations. 

Moves or P is limited by "rapidly," an adverbial element of 

the first class denoting how light moves. 

Rapidly is an adverb of manner, of the positive degree 

(compared, rapidly, more rapidly, most rapidly), 
and limits " moves ;" according to Rule IX., 
" Adverbs are used, etc." 

335. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the ad- 
verbs: — 

Human prudence should be rightly understood. The stage started 
early. Mary writes beautifully. The wind blows fiercely. We easily 
forget our own misdeeds. We cannot view the sun steadily. One can 
easily imagine himself a prince. The sun shines brightly. The water 
flows there. Perhaps he will do it. He cannot do it. Write carefully. 
Study attentively. Come here. 

336. Write fifteen sentences, and limit each predicate by an 
adverb. 

337. Observe the following order of parsing the elements. 

1. The subject. 3. The adjective element. 

2. The predicate. 4. The objective element. 

5. The adverbial element. 



MODELS FOB ANALYZING AND PARSING. 107 

338. Apply the following model for all the elements united. 

Constant boasting always betrays incapacity. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 

Boasting is the subject (why?). 

Betrays is the predicate (why ?). 

The subject is limited by " constant," an adjective ele- 
ment of the first class denoting a continued 
habit. 

Constant boasting .... is the complex subject (why ?). 

Betrays is limited, first, by " incapacity," an object- 
ive element of the first class, denoting 
what is betrayed. 

Betrays is also modified by " always," an adverbial 

element of the first class, denoting time 
absolute. 

Always betrays incapacity is the complex predicate. 

(a.) The five elements of the sentence stand as follows, — 

Constant . . First Subordinate. Incapacity . Second Subordinate. 

Boasting ) ^.^ AIways Thirc] Subordinate. 

Betrays J ^ 

The sentence may be symbolized thus, a S P { v- 

339. Analyze and symbolize the following examples, and 
parse each word. Show which have five elements, a,nd which 
have not. 

The pupil performed the task correctly. The ambitious often deceive 
themselves. The slothful seldom respect themselves. No man should 
return an injury. Idleness begets poverty. Animals run. Some 
animals run swiftly. The birds devour the cherries greedily. Virtue 
is often neglected. Socrates the philosopher was condemned. 

340. Write five sentences containing five elements; five con- 
taining four; five containing three; and five others contain- 
ing only two. 



108 SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE ADVERB. 

Cautions and Special Directions for Using the Adverb. 

341. Bear in mind that the adverb in this combination 
may be made subordinate to any attributive (79), and is 
used, not to complete either the predication or the action, 
but to modify the meaning of the attributive. 

342. Be careful not to turn an adjective used to com- 
plete the predication of a copulative verb into an adverb. 

Say, The air feels soft, not softly. The wind blows fresh, not freshly. The 
country looks fine, not finely. 

343. When a word modifies an adjective proper, it 
should take the form of the adverb ; but when it modifies a 
noun used as an adjective, it should take the form of the 
adjective; as, " A red brick partition." 

Say, His words were exceedingly harsh, not exceeding harsh. She was deadly 
pale, not dead pale. 

344. Never place the adverb between the sign to and 
the verb of the infinitive. 

Say, He chose quietly to bear it, not to quietly bear it. If the infinitive have 
an auxiliary the adverb may come between that and the verb ; as, " He was 
known to have really performed the part assigned him." 

345. In the case of those adverbs which may take any 
place in the clause, the position should be determined with 
reference to the general effect. When great emphasis is 
to be given to certain parts, the adverb should be placed 
first. 

Thus, Meanwhile, the disorders were increasing. Assuredly, the facts are as 
already stated. 

346. But in case there should be any doubt as to what 



SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE ADVERB. 109 

word is modified, the adverb should be placed in close 
connection with the word to which it belongs, and then, as 
a general rule, should stand before an adjective, after a 
verb, and between the auxiliary and the verb. 

Ex. — Now you may go and prepare for the excursion. Go now, and prepare 
for the excursion afterward. 

347. In the use of only and not only be careful to place 
them so as to express the meaning intended, and not some 
other. 

Thus, in the following sentence three different meanings would require three 
different positions of only. — 

Only they marched an hour. — They only marched an hour. — They marched 
only an hour. 

348. Never use no for not. 

Say, Whether he will or not, never — whether he will or no. 

349. Never use how before that (conjunction) or instead 
of it. 

Say, He said that he would come, not how he would come, or how that he 
would come. 

350. Although in old English, as in Anglo-Saxon, two 
negatives strengthened the negation, in modern English 
one only should be used when negation is intended. 

Say, I have no book, not I havew'i no book. Yet two negatives are often ele- 
gantly used to express affirmation. He was not wwwilling= he was willing. 

351. Be careful to point off the adverb by the comma 
when it is removed from the word which it modifies, or 
when it is independent of any particular word ; especially 
in the use of such words as way, thus, first, secondly, thirdly, 
and others used in a similar way. 

10 



110 WORDS WITHOUT COMBINATION. 



Miscellaneous Examples for Correction. 

352. Correct the following examples by the preceding 

cautions : — 

The rose smells sweetly. They know scarcely what they wish. We 
always may accomplish something by perseverance. Find out whether 
I may go or no. Nobody never saw such a sight. 1 will not do it for 
you, no how. This can be done easy enough. He seldom or ever fails 
to hit the mark. He said as how that he would do it. Velvet feels 
very smoothly. The ambassador then was recalled. He spoke clear 
and distinct. The old gentleman is tolerable well. She never goes 
nowhere. This mistake is said actually to have occurred. I will go 
most (343) any time you choose. When I have finished my lesson, at 
once I will do the errand. It is not near so large. I have only 
attended three of the lectures in the course. The disappointment will 
rather make him irritated than penitent. Illustrate the difference 
between " a remarkable young man" and " a remarkably young man." 
The lecturer almost made an entire failure. The brick feels roughly. 
Touch the keys soft. Haven't you only one pair of gloves ? Come 
quick. 



SECTION VII. 

INTERJECTIONS, AND THE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

Words without Combination. 

353. There are certain words used simply to express the 
emotions of the speaker ; as, oh ! alas ! ah ! Such words 
do not form any part of a sentence, but are called Inter- 
jections, because they are thrown in between the parts of 
a sentence. 

(a.) Interjections being expressions of emotion, and not thought (12), have no 
dependence upon other words, and therefore are not elements of the sentence. 



MODEL FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. Ill 

354. It is often necessary to designate the person to 
whom language is addressed. When this is done, his 
name or title as a compellative is often introduced, gener- 
ally at the beginning of the sentence, but has no gram- 
matical relation to the parts of it. 

Ex. — Father, I have returned. Sir, defeat is impossible. 

355. A noun or a pronoun thus used is said to be in the 
nominative case independent 

356. The interjection and the nominative case inde- 
pendent may be parsed by the following rule : — 

Mule _3T. — Tlie nominative case independent, and 
the interjection, have no grammatical relation to 
the othei* parts of the sentence. 



Exercise and Model for Analysis and Parsing. 

357. Analyze and parse — Oh, Father, I want that lily. 

I ... is the subject (why ?). 

Want . is the predicate (why?). 

Want . is limited by " that lily," denoting ivhat is wanted. 

Oh . . is an interjection, having no dependence upon the other parts 
of the sentence ; according to Rule X. 

Father is a common noun, of the second person, singular number, 
masculine gender, and nominative case independent ; according 
to Rule X. 

358. Write sentences each containing a nominative case 
independent, an interjection, or both. Analyze and parse 
according to the model. 



SECTION VIII. 
COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 

Formation of Complex Elements. 

359. A complex element of the first class is formed by 
joining subordinately to a single word any other word for 
the purpose of modifying it. 

(a.) It has already been shown that the subject and predicate may become 
complex by adding other words to them, giving rise to the distinction of gram- 
matical and logical subject or predicate. 

(b.) It should be distinctly understood that all the other elements of a sen- 
tence, however long it may be, must depend upon the subject and predicate. 

360. The subordinate elements, also, may become com- 
plex, giving rise to a similar distinction of grammatical 
and logical, 

EXAMPLES. 

Simple Elements. 

Adj. Sub. Pred. Obj. Adv. 

I Careless boys I ... I will finish lessons quickly I 

Complex Subject. Complex Predicate. 

Complex Elements. 

Comp. Adj. Sub. Pred. Comp. Obj. Comp. Adv. 

I Very careless . boys I • • • I will finish . . . their lessons . . too quickly I 

Complex Subject. Complex Predicate. 

361. In a complex element, the simple element, on 
which the others depend, is the basis of it. 

Ex. — "Careless" is the basis of "very careless;" "lessons" is the basis of 
" their lessons ;" and " quickly " is the basis of " too quickly." 

362. The simple element which is joined to the basis is 

112 



FORMATION OF COMPLEX ELEMENTS. Wo 

dependent upon it, and hence is said to be subordinate 

to it. 

Ex. — He purchased a good farm. 

(a.) "Good,"- in this example, is subordinate to "farm." This element, in 
turn, may become the basis to another element subordinate to itself; as, "He 
purchased a very good farm" = S P a v. 

(b.) This connection of elements may be continued indefinitely, forming differ- 
ent degrees of subordination, as indicated by the size of the symbols. 

363. Complex elements are formed by uniting two or 
more dissimilar simple elements, the one being principal 
and the other subordinate to it. 

Besides being dissimilar in rank (i. e., oneprincipal and the other subordinate), — 
(a.) Two elements, dissimilar in name, may be united. 

An adverbial to an adjective element ; as, " An exceedingly beautiful river 
ornaments the town ;" " One treated hospitably should return the favor." 

An adjective to an objective element ; as, " My uncle drove a spirited horse." 

(b.) Two elements, similar in name, but dissimilar in office, may be united. 

An adverb of quantity or degree to an adverb of time, place, or manner; as, " We 
dined unusually late;" " He has gone too far ;" " The boat moves very rapidly." 

An adjective element denoting quality, number, order, etc., to another adjective 
element denoting office or possession; as, "John, the beloved disciple, was ban- 
ished;" "The good man's hope will not disappoint him." 

(c.) Two elements, similar in name and office, but dissimilar in their particular 
application, may be united, — 

1st. A noun in the possessive ease to a noun in the possessive; as, "Jacob's 
brother's son." 2d. A noun in apposition to a noun in apposition; as, " His 
brother David the painter." 

In the first example, "brother's" limits "son," and "Jacob's" limits 
"brother's." In the second, "David" limits "brother," and "painter" 
limits " David." 

361. The basis of a complex element determines its 
name and class. 

Ex. — Birds fly very swiftly. 

(a.) " Swiftly," the basis of " very swiftly," shows the complex element to be 
an adverbial element of the first class. 

365. An adjective is often made subordinate, not to 
another adjective or noun alone, but to both united. 

10* 



114 MODEL FOR ANALYZING COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 

Ex. — An active young soldier. 

(a.) When a limiting and a qualifying adjective both belong to the same noun, 
the former should be placed first; as, '" all good men ;" " this little book." 

(6.) The articles a and the should stand first with all adjectives, except many 
and such, or those preceded by so; as, " many a flower;" "such a book;" " so 
large a portion." 



Exercise and Model for Analyzing Complex Elements. 

366. Analyze — The king issued his decree. = aS Poa. 

It is a simple sentence. aS = the king = comip. snb. 

P o a = issued his decree = comp. pred. 
Oa- his decree = comp. obj. 

King is the subject. 

Issued .... is the predicate. 

The subject . is limited by " the." " The king" is the complex subject. 
The predicate is limited by "his decree," a complex objective element, 
of the first class, denoting what was issued. " Issued 
his decree" is the complex predicate. 
Decree, . . . the basis of the complex objective element, is limited by 
"his," a simple adjective element of the first class, 
denoting whose decree. Parse " decree" by Kule VIII., 
and "his" by Rule VII. 
Each subordinate element may be complex, and should be analyzed in the 
same manner. 

367. Analyze the following sentences according to the model, 
and turn them into interrogative sentences : — 

His oldest brother's son was sick. Alfred the Great subdued the 
Danish king. Peter the hermit preached the first crusade. William 
the Conqueror defeated Harold the Saxon king. Excess produces pre- 
mature old age. Touch it very lightly. Avarice often produces con- 
trary effects. Interest speaks all languages. It acts all parts. Guard 
well your own heart. The shade protected the weary pilgrim. Labor 
disgraces no man. Joseph, Jacob's favorite son, was sold. Moses 
received the ten commandments. 

368. Write sentences of your orm, and give a summary of 
your work in grammar for the week. 



SECTION IX. 

COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 

Formation of Compound Elements. 

369. A compound element of the first class is formed by- 
joining two single words co-ordinately. 

(a.) In the preceding section, it has been shown that dissimilar elements may 
be united by making one subordinate to another. Here we unite two similar 
elements by making them co-ordinate with each other. 

370. Two or more elements are co-ordinate when they 
sustain the same rank in the sentence, and are placed in 
the same relation to some other element. 

Ex. — John and James attended school. 

(a.) "John" and "James" are both subjects of "attended;" they hold the 
same rank (both subjects) in the sentence, and are similar in construction; they 
are hence called co-ordinate, which means, of the same rank. In the sentence, 
"John's brother James attended school," " John's " and " James " are subordinate 
to " brother." 

(b.) An element neither modified nor composed of like parts is simple; an 
element composed of unlike parts, one of which modifies the other as its basis, is 
complex; an element composed of like parts, neither one of which modifies the 
other, is compound. 

371. An element may be both complex and compound ; 

as, " George reads the papers and writes letters' 

372. A subordinate element of the first class is joined 
to its basis without a connective or exponent of the relation. 

373. Co-ordinate elements of any class are joined to each 
other by a peculiar class of words called Conjunctions. 

115 



116 FORMATION OF COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 

(a.) It will be readily perceived that two elements thus connected must either 
be both principal or both subordinate, and in either case, they must be of the 
same name; that is, both subjects, both predicates, both adjective elements, etc. 
So, again, the adjective or adverbial elements thus connected must be of the 
same character ; both must express quality or possession, etc. 

374. All conjunctive words are divided into two general 
classes, — co-ordinate and subordinate; so named from the 
elements which they unite. 

(a.) Conjunctions are said by some to connect sentences only; but when we 
connect ten and five — as, in ten and_/w;e make fifteen — it cannot be said that we 
connect two sentences; for ten is not fifteen, neither is Jive. And connects the 
two words. While they usually connect clauses or sentences, they often con- 
nect words or phrases in construction. 

375. Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect similar 
elements ; subordinate connectives are used to connect dis- 
similar elements. 

Subordinate connectives will be treated of in their proper place. 

376. Co-ordinate conjunctions are divided into four 

classes, — 

1. Copulative, or those which add the parts to each other; as, and, 
also, as well as. 

2. Adversative, or those which show that the parts are opposed or 

contrasted in meaning ; as, but, still, yet, nevertheless. 

3. Alternative, or those which offer or deny a choice between two 
things ; as, or, nor, else. 

4. Casual, or those which connect a conclusion to a premise, or a 
reason to a consequent ; as, for, therefore, consequently. 

377. Co-ordinate conjunctions may be used to connect, — 

1. Two or more similar principal elements, — 
Subjects, — Ex. — Mercury and Venus first appear. 
Predicates, — Ex. — This ancient city was captured and burned. 

2. Two or more similar subordinate elements, — 



MODELS FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 117 

Adjective elements, — Ex. — A wise and virtuous prince ascended the throne. 
Objective elements, — Ex.— Hercules killed a lion and a boar. 
Adverbial elements, — Ex.— He lahored faithfully and successfully. 

378. Sometimes the co-ordinate parts are contrasted, or 
are emphatically distinguished by means of a correlative. 

Ex. — He was both witty and wise. I found him not only destitute, but 
neglected. 

379. The parts of a compound element have a common 
relation to the rest of the sentence. 

(a.) Co-ordinate conjunctions, used to connect subordinate elements, must 
always unite those of the same degree of subordination ; as. " He sent Samuel, 
his first and only son." "Son'' is subordinate to "Samuel," and "first" and 
" only" are alike subordinate to " son ;" that is, they are of the same degree of 
subordination, as appears by the symbols S P a (a + a.). 

(b.) A sentence having but one of its elements compound is not properly a 
simple sentence, nor is it strictly a compound sentence. It is a contrasted com- 
pound, and may be converted into a complete compound, as will be shown here- 
after. 

380. The following is the rule for parsing co-ordinate 
conjunctions : — 

Mule XI, — Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to 
connect similar elements. 



Exercise and Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

381. Analyze — Socrates and Plato were distinguished philos- 
ophers. = (S + S)P. 

It is a sentence having a compound subject. 

Socrates and Plato form the corrfpound subject, because they are 
united by " and," and have a common predicate, 
" were philosophers." 

The subject is not limited. 



118 MODELS FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 

The predicate . . is limited by " distinguished," an adjective element 
of the first class, used to describe " philosophers." 

And is a co-ordinate conjunction (copulative), and con- 
nects the two simple subjects ; according to Rule XI. 

Two subjects united by a co-ordinate conjunction do not form a compound 
subject, unless the predicate may belong to each when taken separately ; as, 
''Socrates was a distinguished philosopher," and "Plato was a distinguished 
philosopher." But not so with the following propositions : — " Two and two are 
four ;'' " Vice and misery are inseparable." We cannot say, " Two are four and 
two are four ;" " Vice is inseparable and misery is inseparable." 

The same distinction should be observed in any element. " The boat sails 
between Brooklyn and New York;" not " between Brooklyn and between New 
York." 

382. Analyze — The soldier is weak, but courageous. = a S(P+P). 
It is a sentence having a simple subject and compound predicate. 

Soldier is the subject. 

Is weak and is courageous form the compound predicate, because 
they belong in common to the same subject, " soldier." 

The subject ... is limited by "the," an adjective element of the first 
class, used to denote " soldier." 

But is a co-ordinate conjunction (adversative), and con- 
nects the two predicates by contrasting the latter 
with the former ; according to Rule XI. 

383. Analyze — You may buy books or slates. = S P(o + o). 

It is a sentence having a compound objective element. 

You is the subject. 

May buy is the predicate. 

You is not limited. 

May buy is limited by "books or slates," a compound objective 

element of the first class, showing ivhatm&y be bought. 

Or is a co-ordinate conjunction (alternative), showing that 

a choice is offered between "books" and "slates," 
which are connected by it ; according to Rule XI. 

384. Write or select examples of compound elements. 



AGREEMENT WITH THE COMPOUND ELEMENT 119 

Agreement with the Compound Element. 

385. Since a compound element may have a verb or a 
pronoun agreeing with it, the following rule should be 
observed : — 

Rule XII. — When a verb or a pronoun relates to 
two or more nouns connected by a co-ordinate con- 
junction— 

1„ If it agrees with them taken conjointly, it must be in the plural 
number. 

2. But if it agrees with them taken separately, it must be of the 
same number as that which stands next to it. 

3. If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must take the number 
of that one. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Charles and his sister were absent. 
Charles or his sister was absent. 
Neither Charles nor his sister was absent. 
Charles or his sisters were absent. 
Either of his sisters or Charles himself was absent. 

Not Charles, but his sister, was absent. 
Charles, and not his sister, was absent. 
Charles, as well as his sister, was absent. 
Not Charles, but his sisters, were absent. 
Charles, and not his sisters, was absent. 

386. When the parts connected by a co-ordinate con- 
junction are of different persons, a verb should agree with 
the first person rather than the second or third, and with 
the second rather than the third. 

Ex. — John or I are coming. Thou or John art guilty. 

387. A compound predicate generally contains similar 
attributes, each being a verb, a participle, an adjective, or a 
noun. 

(a.) The parts generally, though not always, agree in mode and tense. 



120 AGREEMENT WITH THE COMPOUND ELEMENT. 

388. When two or more nouns in the possessive case 
are connected, — 

1. If the object possessed belongs to the two conjointly, the sign of 
possession should be applied to the last only. 

Ex. — Little and Brown's store. 

2. If different objects, having the same name, are possessed, the sign 
of possession ('s) should belong to them separately. 

Ex. — A Greenleaj 's and an Emerson's Arithmetic. 

389. In the following cases the co-ordinate terms are 
taken separately, although they seem to be conjoined: — 

1. When they denote the same person in different capacities. 
Ex. — This great statesman and orator died lamented by his friends. 

2. When they are limited by each, every, or no. 

Ex. — No labor and no expense was spared. Every tree and every shrub was 
cut away. Each boy and each girl was in order. 

3. When they are contrasted or distinguished with emphasis, by 
means of not, not only, as well as. 

390. When the co-ordinate nouns are regarded by the 
mind as naming one thing, the pronoun or the verb is put 
in the singular. 

Ex. — Bread and milk is excellent food for children. 

391. When the co-ordinate parts are each singular, and 
of different genders, — 

1. The verb may relate to them conjointly, while the pronoun may 
relate to but one. 

Ex. — James and his sister were destroying her bonnet. James and his sister 
were destroying his cap. 

2. The pronoun may relate to them taken conjointly, while the verb 
relates to them taken separately. 

Ex. — James or his sister has destroyed their dictionary, the dictionary being 
theirs by a joint ownership. 



EXERCISES UPON CO-ORDINATE CONSTRUCTIONS. 121 

3. If the pronoun has a common reference to both co-ordinate nouns 
taken conjointly, the gender cannot be distinguished by the pronoun, 
since the latter is plural, and consequently has, in English, the same 
form for all genders. 

4. If the pronoun refers to two or more co-ordinate nouns taken 
separately, there is no personal pronoun, in English, applicable to each, 
and there is an inherent difficulty in constructing the expression 
properly. 

Ex. — John or Ellen has lost his or her pencil. 

To use his alone, or her alone, would reveal the ownership, which is supposed 
to he unknown. Hence it does not avail to say that the masculine is preferred 
to the feminine, and the feminine to the neuter; for any pronoun would become 
explicit. To avoid this difficulty, it is best to recast the sentence, or so construct 
it as to escape such a dilemma. Yet, contrary to the general rule, frequent 
instances occur in which the pronoun, in such cases, is put in the plural, and 
thus the gender is concealed ; as, " Then shalt thou bring forth that man or that 
woman unto thy gates, and shalt stone them with stones till they shall die." 



Exercises upon Co-ordinate Constructions. 

392. Analyze and symbolize the following sentences, parsing 
the conjunctions and the verbs : — 

The sun and moon stood still. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were 
Jewish patriarchs. Exercise ferments the humors, throws off redun- 
dancies, an.d assists nature. The plain and simple style recommends 
and heightens the sublime. Education expands and elevates the mind. 
Religion refines and purifies the affections. Many very worthy and 
sensible people have certain odd tricks. Some people do little good, 
but much evil. 

393. Write predicates to the following compound subjects : — 

Washington and Lafayette ; sun and moon ; my brother and I ; 
Samuel or Peter; silver or gold; neither one nor the other; not 
Adam, but Eve ; snow, as well as rain ; William or his sons ; Cain, 
and not Abel ; Jacob or his children ; the members or the president ; 
not the children, but the father ; George, and Joseph also ; every man 
and woman ; each boy and girl. 

Ex. — Washington and Lafayette were distinguished generals. 
11 " 



122 CAUTIONS AND SPECIAL DIRECTIONS. 

394:. Write compound predicates to the following subjects: — 

Promises, murderer, emperor, picture, Bible, boys, children, gram- 
mar, Arnold, Cicero, Mohammed, coal, religion, virtue, diligence, 
behavior, kindness. 

Ex. — Promises are often made and broken. 

395. Write fifteen sentences of your own, limiting the sub- 
jects of the first five by a compound adjective element; the 
predicates of the next five by a compound objective element; 
and the predicates of the last five by a compound adverbial 
element. 

Ex. — A large and beautiful horse was killed. The flood swept away trees, 
fences, houses, and barns. Some men sin frequently , deliberately, and presump- 
tuously. 

396. Write ten sentences, making any two elements in each 
compound. 

Ex. — George and David study grammar and arithmetic. 



Cautions and Special Directions. 

397. In applying a verb or a pronoun to a co-ordinate 
combination as subject, consider, — ■ 

1. Whether the terms are taken jointly, and if so, whether the two 
express a single idea or a plurality of ideas ; if the former, make the 
verb or the pronoun singular; as, " Bread and milk is excellent food 
for children ;" if the latter, make it plural ; as, " Eye and wheat were 
sown sparingly." 

Sometimes either form, according as the mind takes the ideas, is admissible; 
as, " Two and three is five," or are five. In the former case the mind is fixed 
upon the aggregate; in the latter, upon the separate numbers. 

2. Whether they seem to be taken jointly, but are really separated 
by such limiting words as each, every, no; as, " No man and no woman 
was allowed to escape," not were allowed. 

3. Whether the conjunction indicates that they are to be regarded 
separately ; as, "Rain or hail may v be expected." 



CAUTIONS AND SPECIAL DIRECTIONS. 123 

398. In using co-ordinate conjunctions which mark cor- 
respondence or contrast, be careful to place the conjunction 
and its proper correlative so as to distinguish clearly and 
truly the corresponding or contrasted terms. 

Say, Conjunctions connect either words or sentences; not, Conjunctions either 
connect words or sentences ; Neither waste your words or your time, should be, 
— Waste neither your words nor your time. Correct this: — Adversity both 
taught you to think and to reason. 

399. In the use of co-ordinate conjunctions, be careful 
to preserve a proper similarity in the connected terms. 

Say, we saw them enter the door and fill the hall, not entering the door and 
fill the hall. The following is wrong: — To learn the rules of grammar, and not 
speaking or writing according to them, is little better than not learning them at 
all. 

400. Be careful to give to every co-ordinate term its 
own proper modification, and not to assign as common to 
all, that which is not compatible with every one. 

Say, He can perform, and ought to perform, the task assigned, not, He can 
and ought to perform. His plan was different from the first, and greatly superior 
to it, not, His plan was different, and greatly superior to the first. The follow- 
ing are wrong : — He has, and professes to be, an accountant. He is as tall, if not 
taller, than his brother. 

401. Be careful to distinguish by the comma a mere 
alternative in terms from an alternative in thought: — He 
entered the town, or city of London, but stopped only a day 
or two. 

402. Omit the conjunction, and put a comma in its place 
in a co-ordinate series having three or more terms, except 
between the last two terms. 

Ex. — The deaf, the blind, the lame and the palsied were there. He fills, he 
bounds, connects and equals all. 

403. Apply the comma between any two co-ordinate 
terms when placed in strong contrast. 

Ex. — Though deep, yet clear. He was weak, not strong. 



124 THE ELEMENTS IN THEIR VARIOUS FORMS. 



Miscellaneous Examples to be Corrected. 

404. Correct the following exam-pies, — 

He not only ought, but must, see his folly. I always have, and I 
always shall be, of this opinion. The work was executed with rapidity 
and promptly. His fortune has not only suffered by his folly, but his 
health. He neither was successful or happy. He continued ringing 
the bell, and to wait at the door. He both was proud and poor. 

See through this air this ocean and this earth 
All matter quick and bursting into birth. 

He neither likes town or country. The Russian prince had many 
slaves or serfs. Seed-time and harvest cold and heat summer and 
winter day and night shall not cease. Thence to the land where flows 
Ganges and Indus. Every tree and every shrub were loaded with 
blossoms. Neither history nor tradition furnish the information. 
Neither men nor money were lacking. Neither Eobert nor I are 
capable of such meanness. 



The Elements in their Yarious Forms. 

405. A sentence may have several elements of the same 
name. 

Ex. — The good old times are coming = 3 a S P. 

Observe that these three are not co-ordinate with one another, though they 
are alike subordinate to " times.'' In, " A very high mountain rose before us," 

the subject has three added words, but the form is v&— Oj not 3 3- Oi 

406. Any of the subordinate elements may be thus 
multiplied. 

Ex. — The sun is always eclipsed twice, annually. 

Observe, that while these, unlike complex or compound elements, are inde- 
pendent of one another, they are alike dependent upon eclipsed. 

407. The subject or the predicate may be itself simple, 
complex, or compound. 

Ex.-SP-aSPo,-(S+S)P,-S(P+P)-or(S+S)(P+P). 



EXERCISE FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 125 

(a.) The modifiers of either may also be simple, complex, or compound, or they 
may be multiplied, as above. 

Ex.-a S P— (a+a) S P,— (a+a) S P (#?)- s a S P -2 a S PS. 

General Exercise for Analysis and Parsing. 

408. Analyze and parse the following miscellaneous ex- 
amples. Tell the office of each word. 

We have learned our lessons. Joseph was sold. You might have 
crossed the stream. He will sell some figs. She should have been 
studying her lesson. The earl is our guest. Be sober. Live con- 
tentedly. Break not your promise. Be thou a scholar. Be firm. Do 
be quiet. The soldiers must have been drilled. The ship ploughs the 
sea. The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent book. Edward the 
Confessor abused his mother. Queen Christina resigned her crown. 
Will you bring me pen, ink, and paper ? The king and queen approved 
and ratified the measure. 

Whence come wars and fightings? I am, dear sir, your affectionate 
friend. My son, give me thy heart. The earth and the moon are 
planets. The creation demonstrates God's power and wisdom. Anarchy 
and confusion, poverty and distress, follow a civil war. Avoid arro- 
gance and servility. 

The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated landscape, the 
boundless ocean and the starry firmament are beautiful and magnifi- 
cent objects. True religion gives our behavior a native and unaffected 
ease. Plain, honest truth wants no artificial coloring. Wise and good 
men are frequently unsuccessful. True worth is modest and retiring. 
Ulysses was a wise, eloquent, cautious and intrepid hero. Good nature 
mends and beautifies all objects. The liberal arts soften and harmonize 
the temper. A philosopher should examine everything coolly, impar- 
tially, accurately and rationally. I shall go myself, or send some one. 
He is not sick, but discouraged. She sings, as well as plays. He has 
caught a pike or a perch. Oh how cold it is! His fate, alas! was 
deplorable. Coming events cast their shadows before. 
Ring out a slowly dying cause, 
And ancient forms of party strife, 
Ring in the nobler modes of life, 
With sweeter manners, purer laws. 
For Romans in Rome's quarrel spared neither land or gold, 
Nor son nor wife, nor limb nor life, in the brave days of old. 
11* 



CHAPTER III. 

(SIMPLE SENTENCES.) 

ELEMENTS OF THE SECOND CLASS-PHRASES. 



SECTION I 



NATURE AND FORM OF ELEMENTS OF THE SECOND 
CLASS. 

The Phrase in its General and Restricted Sense. 

409. A phrase, in the most general sense, is two or more 
words so united as to make sense and form any kind of 
combination except the predicative. 

Ex. — Upright men. Reaching a conclusion. Contending bravely. To see. the 
sun. In the morning of life. But, " Trees grow," " Stars shine," are not regarded 
as phrases. 

(a.) Two or more words joined predicatively form & proposition, and this is 
always to be distinguished from a phrase. In phrases there is to be noticed this 
fundamental difference: the two words, first, may form the two terms of any one 
of the subordinate combinations, as those of the attributive " ancient cities," the 
objective, " watering the earth." or the adverbial, " gliding gently ;" or, secondly, 
they may both together form but one term, and by means of a distinct verbal 
exponent, express its relation to the other term. Thus " in the city " is a phrase, 
expressing the second term and its relation to " dwelling" in the combination, 
" dwelling in the city. 

410. A phrase, in this restricted sense, is a single 
term, having its relation expressed by a connective or an 
auxiliary. 

Ex. — In the morning. To grow. Without exception. Will write. 
126 



THE PHRASE IN ITS GENERAL SENSE. 127 

(a.) The facilities which the phrase, affords for variety and definiteness of 
expression are to be specially observed. We can say, " The laborer rose early," 
and thereby express a general thought. But when we say, " He rose at five 
o'clock" the thought is expressed with far greater definiteness. When great 
emphasis is to be given to an element, it should take that form which will give it 
the greatest definiteness. Compare " freely " and " with freedom ;" " anxiously " 
and " with anxiety." 

411. An element of the second class is a phrase in the 
restricted sense, having one word to represent the idea or 
thought, and another to show its relation. 

Ex. — In conclusion. Of Boston. To ride. By reading. May come. 

412. The idea or thought may be expressed by a sub- 
stantive or an attributive, and the relation by a preposition 
for the former and an auxiliary for the latter. 

Ex. — In truth. At Rome. Shall sing. Can ivalk. Is deceitful. 

(a.) When the substantive and the attributive in their uses intei change with 
each other, the relation-word is made to correspond. Thus, read, as an attribu- 
tive in the verbal form, may take as auxiliary do, have, may, can, etc. But 
when used substantively in this form, it takes the preposition to, and becomes a 
consolidated substantive phrase, to read, to have read. In the participial form 
it must first take the copula is, was, etc., to place it in the predicative combi- 
nation, and then the copula may take, besides, any of the auxiliaries. When 
used substantively in the participial form, it takes a preposition ; as, in reading, 
for writing, by advancing. When an adjective or a substantive is to be used 
predicatively, it must always take the copula; and then, as in case of the parti- 
ciple, the copula may take any of the auxiliaries ; as, He was successful, may be 
successful, etc. ; He was a scholar, might have been a scholar, etc. Whenever 
these predicates are used substantively, the participle or the infinitive of the 
copula must be retained ; as, By his being successful, in being a scholar; To be suc- 
cessful, to be a scholar. 

(b.) It will be seen that an element of the second class differs from an element 
of the first in respect to the relation In the former the relation is expressed 
explicitly : in the latter it is either implied by the position of the terms, or indi- 
cated by the infection of the subordinate term. An element of the second class 
may be regarded as an expansion of a corresponding element of the first. The 
use of second class elements characterizes a language in its tendency to become 
analytic (39). Thus, "Solomon's temple " = the temple of Solomon; scripsil, in 
Latin, = he has written. 

(c.) By changing an element of the first class to one of the second, or the 
opposite, we can often give a more effective or a more agreeable turn to a sen- 
tence. Thus, " If we cannot see the manner ot sin's poison, no wonder if we 



128 FORMATION OF WORDS AND PHRASES. 

cannot perceive the method of graces antidote," would he improved by using 
phrases for the possessives : " If we cannot see the manner of the poison of sin, 
no wonder if we cannot perceive the method of the antidote of grace." On 
account of the recurrence of the preposition of, it would be better to give still 
another turn to the sentence : '' If we cannot see the manner in which sin 
poisons, no wonder if we cannot perceive the method by which grace heals, or 
furnishes the antidote. 



Formation of Words and Phrases. 

413. Eesearches in the field of comparative philology 
have shown that words in their origin were a species of 
phrase consisting of monosyllabic roots. 

(a.) Thus, the word am in its remotest history was as mi = being of me; later, 
it became as-mi = be-I; still later, asmi = I am, thus becoming a word, first in 
what now would be called the hyphen- stafe, and then in the consolidated form. 
After suffering various phonetic changes in its transmission from age to age, 
becoming first asm', then a' m\ it assumed its present form am. Complete 
words, in turn, began to show a similar tendency. Thus, various words came 
naturally to show a special affinity for other words, such as like, full, leas (loose 
or free), resulting in such combinations as man-like, beast-like; good-like, fear- 
full, hope-full, shame-full; shape-leas, fear-leas, hope leas. Each of these parts 
was pronounced, at first, with a conscious regard to its full meaning, like man, 
full of hope, free from fear. 

(b.) In process of time the common element, full, like, leas, being often repeated, 
and producing a uniform effect upon the other, gradually lost its prominence, 
sank into a subordinate rank, united permanently with the first element as its 
principal, and suffered phonetic change. Thus, man-like became vianly ; fear-leas, 
fearless; hope-full, hopeful. 

414. Whenever any element in a word or a phrase 
becomes subordinate, and serves only to restrict or other- 
wise modify the meaning or application of the other, it is 
called a formative element. 

(a.) Thus, among primitive roots, which are divided into predicative and pro- 
nominal, the latter became formatives. The roots mi, me; si, thee; ti, him, her, 
it, became appendages to all others, serving the common purpose of attributing 
the vague meaning of such roots as vac, or voc, a calling, ag, a struggling, to some 
person or thing. Thus, voc-mi, voc-si, voc-ti, would be calling of me, thee, him, 
= I call, thou callest, he calls. These combinations at length were consolidated, 
and finally suffered various changes, chiefly in the formative element, sometimes, 
in both the substantial and the formative, as in the case of a' m' — am. From 



FORMATION OF WORDS AND PHRASES. 129 

these various combinations and transformations have come our words, fitted for 
use, and adapted to a proper classification as parts of speech. 

415. A word thus formed often becomes a stem which is 
itself modified by one or more formative elements. 

Ex. — Man-fully. Un- change -able-ness. 

Observe, that man is the fundamental element, and takes to itself the forma- 
tive ful; then manful becomes a stem, and is modified by ly ; thus, starting with a 
noun, we obtain an adjective, then an adverb. 

(a.) The formative element is a prefix, when it is placed before the root or the 
stem ; a suffix, when it is placed after either. 

416. Two words, neither of which is so completely sub- 
ordinate to the other as to become its formative, may unite 
and form a compound word. 

Ex. — Sunbeam, moonlight, steamboat. 

(a.) While these are properly compound, the others are really complex, and are 
called derivatives, having the substantial element as principal, and the formative 
as subordinate. A simple word is one in which the original formative, such as 
mi, si, or ti, is completely worn away by phonetic change, or so interwoven with 
the substantial root as not to be distinguished from it. Thus, am, act (ag-ti = 
ac(g)t' = act) are simple words. Probably there never were any truly primitive 
words; there were primitive elements or roots, from which words were formed. 

(6.) Many compounds are admitted as true words in all respects ; others are 
in the hyphen stage, with a strong claim to a full admission ; as, musk-melon 
(Webster), muskmelon (Worcester) ; many others will remain a long time in this 
stage. 

(c.) By an anomalous usage in English, two nouns often come together for 
temporary purposes without the hyphen. The former serves the purpose of an 
adjective. And, in fact, the more permanent examples show that the former of 
two nouns, united with or without the hyphen, serves a similar purpose. Thus, 
moon-dial contrasts with sun-dial; steam-boat with row-boat. Sometimes the 
former expresses the peculiar limitation of the possessive, as, New- Year's-day. 
dog's-tongue. When the former is distinguished by an adjective, as, New Zealand, 
White Mountains, a hyphen must indicate that part of the compound which is 
to receive the adjective. Thus, New-Zealand tea = tea, from New Zealand: a 
White- Mountain moose = a moose from the White Mountains; whereas, "a 
white mountain-moose would mean a white moose living upon the mountains. 

(d.) Of words in the hyphen-stage, a very expressive class come from com- 
bining a substantive and an attributive; as, law-abiding, sin-inducing, God- 
forsaken, wheat- growing, etc. 



130 VARIOUS KINDS OF PHBASZS. 

417. Whenever the formative element remains apart 
from the substantial, the two are still to be taken together ; 
they then form a phrase or element of the second class. 

Ex. — In truth. By day. To ride. Can sing. Is young. 

(a.) A phrase (411), then, is a grammatical element in which the substantial 
and the formative parts are expressed by separate words. . In most cases the 
formative is placed first ; as in, " to write," " will read," " through fear." But in 
the case of those intransitive verbs which take after them a preposition so far 
inseparable as to be carried over into the passive voice, the formative seems to 
belong to the verb, and, of course, follows it. Thus, " The boy was well cared 
for." 

Yarious kinds of Phrases. 

418. Grammatical phrases are,— 

1. Inseparable, or permanent, when they are not subject to further 
analysis. 

Ex. To find. To break. To have learned. 

(a.) The infinitive with the prefix to comes to us from the Anglo-Saxon. It 
was an oblique case governed by the preposition to. This, in English, is a per- 
manent prefix, not to be parsed, but to be taken with the verbal part of the 
phrase ; both form the infinitive. This prefix is not always necessary to the infini- 
tive, and is omitted after may, can, shall, will, must, do, and in the active voice 
after bid, dare, make, see, hear, feel, need. 

(b.) The compound forms of the verb are usually treated as inseparable 
phrases. They ought first to be taken as a whole, and then the auxiliary as the 
formative and the verb as the substantial part should be carefully examined. 

2. Separable, when, after being taken together as one word, they 
may be resolved into the two parts which suffer no change of meaning 
by the analysis. 

Ex.— Sailing on the boat. Sitting in the mill. Here, if we separate into sail- 
ing — on — the boat, the parts have the same value as when combined. Compare 
with this " a man-of-war" = a ship. In " A man — of— war," we can get no idea 
of ship from the parts. See examples below. 

3. Idiomatic, when the parts have become permanently combined, 
or when they have acquired a special meaning, which would be 
destroyed by analysis. 

Ex. — At first. In vain. On high. At length. Come to. Set to. 
(a.) Many phrases which do not take the restricted form (410) are idiomatic ; 
as, take place = happen; lay hold = to grasp ; give ivay = to yield. 



PARTS HAVING A SUBSTANTIVE BASE. 131 

(6.) Idiomatic phrases should be examined and studied as a whole. Their 
meaning cannot be learned from their parts. They reveal periods in the history 
of the language ; they present great difficulties to the foreigner in acquiring it, 
and yet are among its most forcible expressions. 

419. Separable phrases should be taken first as a whole ; 
and then each part should be disposed of separately. 

Ex. — Moving in haste. 

Here, in haste, as a whole, is an adverbial element, modifying moving ; in is 
the formative part, and haste the substantial part. 



Parts of the Phrase having a Substantive Base. 

420. The proper formative of the phrase with a sub- 
stantive for its base is the preposition. 

Ex. — Above the ground. Into the mill. Under the house. 

421. The substantial part is a substantive or an attributive 

used substantively. 

Ex. — On the road. In the forest. To read. In speaking. For being absent. 
To be a scholar. 

422. A preposition is a word used to show the relation 
of a substantive as subordinate term to any other word 
used as principal. 

Ex. — Moving in its orbit. Rays of the sun. 

In the first, the subordinate term orbit is joined to the attributive moving as 
its principal ; in the second, the subordinate sun is joined to the principal rays 
as substantive. 

423. The preposition suggests or intimates the kind of 
relation, and the substantive completes what is intimated, 
and hence is called the object of the relation. 

Ex. — We were walking on — (the mall). 



132 



THE SUBSTANTIVE PHRASE. 



424. The following is a list of the principal prepositions 
in use : — 



Aboard, 


before, 


for, 


throughout, 


about, 


behind, 


from, 


till, 


above, 


below, 


in, into, 


to, 


according to, 


beneath, 


notwithstanding, 


touching, 


across, 


beside, or, 


of, 


toward, or, 


after, 


besides, 


off, 


towards, 


against, 


between, 


on, 


under, 


along, 


betwixt, 


out of, 


underneath. 


amid, or, 


beyond, 


over, 


until, 


amidst, 


by, 


past, 


unto, 


among, or, 


concerning, 


regarding, 


up, 


amongst, 


down, 


respecting, 


upon, 


around, 


during, 


round, 


with, 


at, 


except, 


since, 


within, 


athwart, 


excepting, 


through, 


without. 



(a.) A complex preposition consists of two words, which are to be taken 
together as one word ; as, according to, as to, out of, instead of, because of, off 
from, over against, etc., etc. 

(b.) When the object is a vague idea, the substantive is often omitted, leaving 
the preposition to perform the function of the phrase. It is then used adverbi- 
ally ; as, put in, go up, pass by. 

425. Prepositions are used to denote the various rela- 
tions of time, place, cause, manner, possession, etc. 

426. The use of the preposition may be expressed by 
the following rule : — 

Utile XIII. — JL preposition is used to show the 
relation of its object to the principal term on which 
the object depends. 

Ex. — George went into the garden. 

427. The following is the rule for the object : — 



PARTS HAVING AN ATTRIBUTIVE BASE. 133 

Utile XIV, — A noun or pronoun used as the 
object of a preposition must be in the objective case. 

Ex. — They gathered around him. 

4:28. Prepositions may be classified as, — 

1. Those which show the relation of the indirect object; as, to, for, 
from, of, etc. 

2. Those which show relations of place; as, at, by, in, to, and many- 
others. 

3. Those which show relations of time; as, in, during, from, and 
many others. 

Observe that the same preposition is often used for different relations. 

4. Those which denote causal relations; as, through, of, from, for, 
with. 

5. Those which denote manner; as, with, by, to, and others. 

Parts of the Phrase having an Attributive Base. 

429. The proper formative of this phrase is the auxiliary 
verb, including the copula. 

Ex. — Be, may, can, must, do, shall, will, have. 

430. The substantial part of this phrase is an attributive, 
or a substantive used attributively : — 

(a.) The attributive may take the form, — 

1. Of the infinitive (1), without the sign " to," as, in may write, can write, 
shall write, do write, or (2) with the sign to and the copula ; as, He is to write. 

2. Of the participle (1) in ing, showing what is unfinished; as, He is reading. 
(2) in ed or in any form of the past (active), showing what is finished, but 
received by the object; as, He has read the book. (3) In the same form (passive), 
showing what is finished, but received by the subject; as, The book was read. 

3. Of the adjective, showing what quality or state is affirmed or denied of the 
subject; as, The leaves are dry; The house was warm. 

4. Of the substantive, used attributively, showing either identity or to what 
higher class the subject belongs ; as, It is he; Horses are quadrupeds. 

In all these cases the attributive part is technically called the attribute of the 
proposition. For the auxiliaries see (203). 
12 



134 THE PHRASE AS A WHOLE. 

431. The auxiliaries are, — ■ 

1. Simple, when one only is used. 
Ex. — Be, do, have, shall, will, etc. 

2. Combined, when two or more are required. 

Ex. — May have, will have, may have been, would have been. 

4:32. The simple auxiliaries are used as formatives, — 

1. For predication, when the reception of an act, continued action, 
quality, slate, or class are to be affirmed. 

Ex. — Is deceived, is writing, was wise, is a landholder. 

2. For mode, when power, ability, obligation, etc., are to be affirmed. 
Ex. — May read, can sing, must study. 

3. For tense, when the completion of the actor future action is to be 
affirmed. 

Ex. — Have written, will, or shall write. 

4. For emphasis or interrogation, when the assertion is to be made 
emphatic, or when a question is to be asked. 

Ex.— Do. 

Any of the auxiliaries may be used in asking questions, but do is especially 
needed in asking for what is real. In the ancient style a question was asked by 
means of the verb alone ; as, What came ye out for to see ? Went they with 
the multitude ? 



The Phrase as a Whole. 

433. Phrases considered as a whole are divided into 
substantive, adjective, and adverbial, according to the office 
which they perform in the sentence. 

(a.) In the preceding discussion phrases have been regarded as having a sub- 
stantive or an attributive part. Taken now with reference to both parts together, 
they are to be treated according 'to their use in construction. Few sentences, 
perhaps, in the language are wholly composed of phrases. Yet phrases, mingled 
with other forms, may be used to constitute any of the five elements of a 
sentence. 



THE PHRASE AS A WHOLE. 135 

434. The substantive phrase is the infinitive, and is used 
to form any of the five elements ; when it modifies other 
words, it should be parsed by the following rule : — 

Mule XV. — TJie infinitive depends upon the word 
which it limits. 

Ex. — We went to see you. 

(a.) Since the infinitive partakes of the properties of a noun and a verb, it 
has the construction of both, and may be used as subject, attribute, or object. 

(b.) The infinitive differs from the substantive in the following respects : — All 
words used to limit the infinitive are such as limit the verb. Like the verb, it 
may, by a change of form, denote the continuance, completion, or the time of an 
action; as, "to write;" "to be writing;'' "to have written;" "to have been 
writing." 

(c.) It resembles the preposition and its object in the following respects: — It 
consists of two parts, — some form of the verb, and the particle " to," which was 
once a true preposition. The " to," like the preposition, performs the office of a 
connective, as maybe seen by omitting it in the following examples; as, "I 
love . . . write ;" " We began . . . consider." 

(d.) The infinitive differs from the preposition and its object in the following 
particulars: The " to" is the only preposition used with the verb. The infinitive 
may be used as the subject; whereas the single phrase is seldom, if ever, so 
used. The two parts of the infinitive are never separated by intervening words. 
The two parts of the infinitive are taken together, and, thus combined, may 
become a noun in any relation. 

435. The verbal phrase, consisting of the auxiliary and 
principal verb, is used to form the predicate. 

Ex. — Is reading, can write, was hopeful. 

436. The adjective and adverbial phrases are formed by 
combining the substantive and the preposition. 

Ex. — Hope of reward. Sinking in the water. 

437. The phrase, as a whole, may be used to form either 
of the two principal or of the three subordinate elements. 



SECTION II. 
THE PHRASE USED AS A PRINCIPAL ELEMENT. 

Predicative Combination. 

438. When a phrase is used to form either the subject or 
the predicate of a proposition, it becomes a principal element 
of the second class. 

Ex. — He is sitting. To steal is base. 

The Subject as a Phrase. 

439. The form most commonly used for the subject is 
the infinitive. 

Ex. — To see the sun is pleasant. To deceive is criminal. 

(a.) The symbol of an element of the second class is the same as that of the 
first, with the exponent ( 2 ). 

Ex. — He is sitting = S P 2 . To steal is base = S 2 P 2 . In the preceding chapter 
the second class predicates were not strictly marked. They should be hereafter. 

440. ' Since the infinitive is a kind of abstract noun, it is 
used to name an action when separated from its subject. 

(a.) The infinitive bears a strong resemblance to the class of nouns called 
abstract; as, " generosity, " from "generous" [man]: so "to ivrite," from [men] 
" write." The difference is, the latter has the construction and modifications of 
the noun, whereas the former has the construction of the noun and the modifi- 
cations of the verb. 

441. Although the infinitive expresses an action ab- 
stractly, it is often necessary to connect it with a subject 
or agent of the action. 

Ex. — For you to deceive is highly criminal. 
136 



THE SUBJECT AS A PHRASE. 137 

(a.) In this example, " you " is the real subject of " to deceive ;" and the whole 
phrase, "for you to deceive," is the subject of the proposition. 

(b.) An abstract noun may, in like manner, be connected with the person or 
thing from which the quality is abstracted; as, "A generous man = " A man of 
generosity." In either case, the quality "generous" or "of generosity" is 
assigned to " man." The name of the p # erson or thing is often put into a subordi- 
nate phrase and joined to the abstract noun when the quality is to be made 
prominent; as, the generosity of the man. 

442. When the infinitive is used in its most general 
sense, as the subject of a proposition, the simple form only 
is used ; as, " To steal is base ;" but when it has a subject 
of its own, that subject must be in the objective case, 
following the preposition for. 

Ex. — For him to steal is base. 

(a.) To change the infinitive to an element of the first class, substitute for it 
the participial noun, when the infinitive has no subject ; but when it has a sub- 
ject of its own, prefix to the participial noun the possessive case of the subject; 
as, " To lie is wicked " = " Lying is wicked ;" " For him to lie is wicked" = •'His 
lying is wicked." 

443. A complex phrase, formed by uniting two prepo- 
sitions and their objects, is sometimes used to denote a 
given time or space, and may become the subject of a 
proposition. 

Ex. — From morning to night is called day. 

(a.) The simple phrase, consisting of the preposition and object, seldom, if 
ever, becomes the subject of a proposition. 

444. By a peculiar idiom of the language, the infinitive 
or other phrase, when used as a subject, is first represented 
by " it," standing at the head of the sentence, and is itself 
placed after the predicate, 

Ex.— It is pleasant to see the sun. It is criminal to deceive. 

(a.) " It," thus used, or " there," similarly used, is said to be an expletive, 
because it fills a vacancy, and yet is not absolutely necessary to the sense. It 
often gives force and beauty to an expression by enabling us to place emphasis 
on a word which otherwise must occupy an unfavorable position in the sentence ; 
as, "He did not do it ;" " It was not he that did it." 
12* 



138 XX EXCISES FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 

4-45. A phrase used as a substantive is always of the 
third person, singular number, neuter gender. 



Exercises and Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

446. Analyze— To steal is base = S 2 P 2 . 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 
To steal = S 2 is the subject, because it represents that of which the 
quality " base " is affirmed. It is a subject of the second 
class (why ?). 

Is base = P 2 . is the predicate, because it represents the quality 
affirmed of " to steal." It is predicate of the second 
class (why?). "Is" is the verb, and "base "is the 
attribute. 



To steal .... is a verb (principal parts, steal, stole, stolen), in the infin- 
itive mode, present tense, and is used as a noun (3d p., 
s. n., n,g., n.c), in the relation of subject; according 
to Rule I. 

447. Analyze — It is easy to be deceived = S 2 P 2 . 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 
To be deceived =S 2 is the subject, and is represented by the expletiye 
"it." 

Is easy = P 2 is the predicate. 

To be deceived ... is a regular passive verb (principal parts, deceive, 
deceived, deceived), in the infinitive mode, present 
tense, and is used as a noun in the relation of 
subject ; according to Rule I. 

It is a personal pronoun, representing "to be de- 
ceived;" of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and nominative case, and is an 
expletive used simply to introduce the sentence in 
a particular way. 

448. Analyze the following propositions, and parse the 
infinitives : — 



EXERCISES FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 139 

To err is human. To forgive is divine. To obey is to enjoy. To 
write the same things is not grievous. To swear is wicked. For you 
to cheat is surprising. To see the sun is pleasant. To acquire know- 
ledge is necessary. For American citizens to be educated is essential. 
To conceal the truth is often highly criminal. To repent is our duty. 

It is easy to deceive children. It is wrong to excite false hopes. It 
is base for one to betray his country. It is necessary to write. It is 
pleasant to receive our friends. It is wrong to hate our enemies. 

449. Write predicates to the following infinitives used as 
subjects : 

To be idle ; to labor ; to write ; to cheat ; to love our enemies ; to 
disobey our parents ; to study ; to sing ; to play ; to laugh ; to open ; 
to swim. 

Ex. — To be idle is criminal. 

450. Write infinitives as subjects to the following predicates, 
the sentence being introduced by " it." 

It is easy. It is contemptible. It is enough. It is difficult. It is 
wrong. It pleased him. It encourages a child. It is important. It 
is favorable. It dignifies humanity. It is necessary. It disgusts one. 
It is pleasant. It is but just. 

Ex. — It is easy to write a lesson. 

451. Change any of the above examples, introduced by 
"it," to equivalent sentences, in which the infinitive shall stand 
at the head. 

Ex. — To deceive children is easy. 

452. Change any of the above examples, beginning with the 
infinitive, to equivalent forms introduced by " it." 

Ex. — It k human to err. 

453. Change the infinitives in any twelve of the foregoing 
examples to participial nouns used as subjects. 

Ex. — Acquiring knoxvledge is necessary. 



140 THE PREDICATE AS A PHRASE. 



The Predicate as a Phrase. 

451. There are two forms of the phrase used as predi- 
cate, — 

1. That in which the attribute is a single word, a participle, an 
adjective, or a substantive (429). 

Ex. — Is coming. Is faithful. Is commander. 

2. That in which the attribute is itself a phrase. 

Ex. — The man is in haste; The obstacle is to be overcome; To be good is to be 
happy. Here the phrase " to be good" is the subject, and " is to be happy " is 
the predicate; the adjectives "good" and "happy" are used absolutely. 

455. The infinitive, when used as attribute, denotes, — 

1. An equivalent term or expression. 
Ex. — To obey is to enjoy. 

2. What is possible, or obligatory. 

Ex. — The passage is to be found. Our rights are to be respected. 

3. . What is settled, or determined upon. 

Ex. — The ship is to sail next week. 

(a.) A troublesome example of the infinitive phrase arises- from the case in 
which the infinitive is derived from the predicate consisting of the copula and 
an adjective or a substantive; as, To be good is to be happy; To devote, one's 
self to study is to be a scholar. Good, happy, and scholar are used absolutely, 
that is, are absolved from their dependence upon a superior term. The attribute 
to be happy, or to be a scholar, should be disposed of (1) like any infinitive in the 
same relation, and then happy is taken as an adjective used absolutely with to be 
and scholar, as a noun used absolutely in the same manner. 

456. When the phrase used as attribute consists of a 
preposition and its object, it is equivalent to an adjective, 
and, like the predicate-adjective, denotes some property or 
circumstance of the subject. 

Ex. — George is without a penny = George is penniless. He is at dinner = 
dining. He is in health = well. 

(a.) The question arises, What is the principal term (426) on which the objects 
penny, dinner, etc. depend? There can be no doubt in case of the adjectives 



MODELS FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 141 

penniless or well. The only difference between " the penniless man " and " the 
man is penniless " is, that the quality is assumed in the former, and affirmed in 
the latter. In both cases the adjective has, as its principal term, man. There 
can be no difference, logically, when "penniless" = " without a penny:' The 
preposition shows an adjective relation in both cases to man: that is, the adjective 
element without apenny, is assumed in " the man without a penny," but affirmed 
in the other. In other words, with precisely the same value, and the same 
adjective relation to man, the phrase is used to complete the predication of is 
in one case, and is used without predication in the other. With shows the 
adjective relation of penniless to man, and is shows the predicative relation of the 
whole phrase to the same. 



Exercise and Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

457. Analyze — Our honor is to be maintained = a S P 2 . 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 

Honor is the subject, because, etc. 

Is to be maintained is the predicate, because, etc. 

The subject, honor, is limited by "our," an adjective element of the 

first class, denoting whose honor. 
The predicate is not limited ; it denotes what ought to be. " Is" 

is the copula, and "to be maintained" is the 

attribute. 
To be maintained . is a regular transitive verb, passive form, infinitive 

mode, present tense, and is used as a noun in the 

relation of attribute ; partly as noun and partly 

as verb. 

458. Analyze — He is without fear = S P\ 

Is without fear, the predicate, denotes a state of the subject. "Is" is 
the copula, and "without fear" is the attribute; it is 
equivalent to fearless, and relates to the subject; ac- 
cording to Rule III. 

Without .... is a preposition, and shows the relation of "fear" to 
" he ;" according to Rule XIII. 

Fear is a common noun, etc., and objective case, and is used 

to complete the relation denoted by "without;" 
according to Rule XIV. 

459. Analyze the following propositions, and parse the 

predicates : — 



142 GENERAL USES OF THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE. 

His nephew is to be educated. The captive is to be released. The 
work is to be completed. George was in fault. The slanderer is 
beneath contempt. The child was in ecstasy. The general is in fine 
health. The passage is to be found. The watchmen are on their 
guard. He is at supper. The patient is in distress. Our word is not 
to be broken. The trees are in blossom. The prisoner is without 
friends. The gentleman's character is above suspicion. My brother 
is in excellent spirits. 

460. Write ten sentences, having a phrase for the predicate. 

461. Change the attributes in the foregoing examples to 
elements of the first class. 

Ex —His nephew must be educated. George was culpable. 



SECTION III. 
THE PHRASE USED AS THE ADJECTIVE ELEMENT. 

General Uses of the Adjective Phrase. 

462. When the phrase is used to effect either of the 
purposes mentioned in (231. 1, 2) it is called an adjective 
element of the second class. 

463. Quality is denoted by an abstract noun formed 
from an adjective of quality, and is connected subordi- 
nately with the subject by the preposition of or is made 
subject, having the object possessing the quality connected 
subordinately by of 

Ex. — A generous man = a man of generosity, or the generosity of the man. 

464. Circumstance is indicated by some noun denoting 
place, time, cause, source, or manner, connected by of, or 
any other preposition which may show its true relation to 
the subject. 



GENERAL USES OF THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE. 143 

Ex. — An Arabian horse — a horse of [or from] Arabia. A morning walk = 
a walk in the morning. A brazen kettle = a kettle of brass. A hasty prepa- 
ration = a preparation in haste. 

465. To identify a common noun, we often connect with 
it by of its proper name. 

Ex. — The city of Boston = the city Boston. 

(a.) The infinitive is often used for a similar purpose ; as, " A desire to assist 
you prompted the proposal." 

466. Possession is denoted by of, which shows the rela- 
tion of the possessor to the object possessed. 

Ex. — The estate of my father = my father's estate. 

(a.) It will readily he seen that the preposition of is properly the exponent 
of the adjective phrase. For the purpose of convenient reference, its principal 
uses are here brought together : — 

(1.) It shows the relation of a quality to an object, or of an object to a quality; 
as, " a man of virtue " = " a virtuous man," the virtue of the man. (2.) It shows 
the relation of an effect to the cause or agent; as, "the temple of Solomon" = 
"Solomon's temple." (3.) It shows the relation of a material to the thing made 
of it ; as, " a vessel of brass " = " a brazen vessel." (4.) It shows the relation of a 
whole to some of its parts; as, "the top of a free" = " the tree-top." (5.) It 
denotes the relation of persons; as, "the brother of Samuel" — " Samuel's 
brother." (6.) It denotes the relation of a possessor to the object possessed; as, 
"the estate of my father " = " my father's estate." (7.) It denotes the relation 
of apposition; as, "the city of Boston" — "■ the city Boston." (8.) It denotes 
the relation of an object to that for which it is adapted; as, " hats of or for men" 
= " men's hats." (9.) It shows the relation of some circumstance of time or 
place; as, " the mountains of Mexico "— " the Mexican mountains ;" " the report 
of last year " = " last year's report." 

(6.) In many of these cases, some word is understood ; as, " a walk taken in 
the morning ;" " a house situated on the mountain ;" " imprisonment suffered for 
debt ;" " a heavy loss caused by fire." 

(c.) The participial noun is often used to limit a noun; as, "The hope of 
receiving a reward stimulated him." 



Exercise and Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

467. Analyze — The brother of Richard I. usurped the throne. 

iSPo. 



144 MODELS FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 

Brother . . is the subject. 

Usurped . is the predicate. 

The subject is limited (1) by "the," and (2) by the phrase " of Richard," 
an adjective element of the second class, denoting the 
family relation of " brother" and "Richard;" it is equiva- 
lent to "Richard's." " Of" is the exponent (connective or 
formative), and " Richard " is the object. 

Of is a preposition, and shows the relation of " Richard " to 

" brother ;" according to Rule XIII. 

Richard . . is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, objective case, and completes the relation 
of the preposition " of;" according to Rule XIV. 

468. Analyze — His attempt to rescue his friend was fatal to him- 
self. 

Attempt, the subject, is limited by "to rescue," an adjective element 
of the second class, used to designate the 
attempt. 

To rescue is a verb (from rescue, rescued, rescued), in the 

infinitive mode, present tense, and depends upon 
" attempt ;" according to Rule XV. 

469. Analyze the following examples, and parse the 

phrases : — 

A man of straw was prostrated. Time to come is called future. A 
desire to see you has brought me here. The spirit of Loda shrieked. 
The joy of his youth was great. The city of Mexico is beautifully 
situated. The hope of the hypocrite will fail. The man at the mast- 
head descried an iceberg. His intention to resign has been publicly 
announced. The true spirit of heroism is generous. A man of honor 
will never forsake his friends. The hope of hearing from you has 
greatly delighted me. The author of the Waverly novels was for a 
long time unknown. All the trophies of their power and guilt will 
sink to oblivion. 



SINGLE OBJECT AS PHRASE. 145 

470. Write sentences limiting the subjects by the following 

phrases : — 

Of morning ; in the moon ; of brass ; of generosity ; of America ; 
of virtue ; of seeing ; of doing ; of wood ; of Europe ; on board ; of 
the house ; of friends ; of home. 

Ex. — The dawn of morning found Waverly on the esplanade. 

471. Change any twelve of the adjective elements in the pre- 
ceding examples into equivalent forms of the first class. 

Ex. — The morning dew has passed away. 

472. Write sentences of your own, limiting the subjects by 
the following adjective elements; then change them to the 
second class : — 

Evening, virtuous, David's, Solomon's, generous, honorable, penni- 
less, comfortless, coming, breathless, prosperous, experienced, deformed, 
wise, country, morning. 

Ex. — An evening walk is agreeable = a walk at evening is agreeable. 



SECTION IV. 

THE PHRASE USED AS THE OBJECTIVE ELEMENT. 

Single Object as Phrase. 

473. When the phrase is used to complete the meaning 
of a verb, either as direct or indirect object, it is called 
an objective element of the second class. 

Ex. — I desire to speak. I spoke of him. 

474. The only form used as the direct object of a transi- 
tive verb is the in] 



146 DOUBLE OBJECT. 



Ex. — We intend (what ?) to leave to-day. They tried (what ?) to conceal their 
fears. 

475. The infinitive is used to complete the meaning of 
verbs which do not take a substantive as an object. 

Ex. — He seemed to revive. 

(a.) The infinitive is often used to complete the meaning of adjectives; as, 
" The pupils are anxious to learn." 

(b.) The verbs and adjectives which are followed by the infinitive are commonly 
such as refer to some operation of the mind; as, desire, desirous; emulate, 
emulous. 

476. The infinitive has two distinct uses as a modifier 
of the predicate. It may be used as a complement of a 
Verb or adjective; or it may denote a purpose. 

Ex. — We went (why ?) to visit our friends. 

(a.) The latter is an adverbial relation, and will be considered in another 
place. 

Double Object. 

A. Personal object with the phrase as attributive. 

. 477. Copulative verbs take an object denoting some per- 
son (sometimes a thing), and an infinitive used as an 
attribute of it. 

Ex. — Practice makes one [to] become skilful. 

(a.) The first object should be regarded as the subject of the infinitive. This 
construction resembles the accusative with the infinitive in the Latin and 
Greek. 

(b.) The subject of the infinitive must be a different person from the subject 
of the principal verb; otherwise the first object is omitted; as, "I wish you 
to go ;" " I wish to go." 

478. When such verbs assume the passive form, the first 
or principal object becomes the subject, and the infinitive 
remains in the predicate. 

Ex. — They made the man labor. The man was made to labor. 



EXERCISE UPON THE OBJECTIVE PHRASE. 147 

B. Personal object with phrase as thing. 

479. The infinitive takes the place of the thing after 
certain verbs, and has usually the object for its subject. 

Ex. — He taught me to write. I was taught to write. Compare with the pre- 
ceding, " He taught me writing," or, " Writing was taught me." " I was taught 
writing." 

480. The to of the infinitive is omitted after the active 
voice of bid, dare, let, make, hear, need, feel, see (418. 1. a). 

Ex. — I heard him say it. 

(a.) After the passive form of these verbs, the to is generally expressed ; as, 
" He was heard to say it." 

C. Either the thing or the personal object— a phrase. 

481. The personal object cannot always be expressed by 
a single word. It often requires a preposition to show its 
relation to the predicate, especially if indirect and removed 
from the verb. 

Ex. — George gave a book to me. 

(a.) When both refer to things the indirect object often shows the source from 
which an action tends, the material out of which any thing is made, or the 
theme of conversation ; as, " We made a box out oj wood;'' " He made a fire of 
coals;" " They begged & favor of me." 

(6.) Sometimes both objects are phrases ; as, " I spoke to him of his father." 
In such cases, the verb often assumes the passive form, taking the preposition 
after it; as, " His father was spoken of." 



Exercise upon the Objective Phrase. 

482. Analyze the following examples, and parse the infini- 



They began to sing. The boy learned to write. I did not expect to 
find it. The children love to play. We hope to see him. The 
ambassador desired to have an interview. 

Ex.— They began to sing = S P o 2 

S = they ; P == began ; o 2 = to sing. 



148 EXERCISE UPON THE OBJECTIVE PHRASE. 

He seemed to sleep. We ought to know. The sun appears to rise. 
The boy was anxious to learn. The student was ambitious to rise. 

I exhorted him to return. Cadmus taught the Greeks to use letters. 
Let us sit. (418. 1. a.) I heard him speak. We made them stop. 
He bade me go. I saw him fall. The officer commanded the soldiers 
to fire. We told them to wait. I ordered him to leave. The doves 
besought the hawk to defend them. Fingal bade his sails to rise. 

483. Change the verbs in the last paragraph to the passive 
voice. 

Ex. — He was exhorted to return. 

4:84. Write sentences containing the following predicates, 
and limit each predicate by a direct and an indirect object, 
placing the direct object first: — 

Lend, teach, make, bring, throw, give, present, write, buy, ask, play, 
show, deny, refuse, promise. 

Ex. — I lent a book to father. 

485. Re-write these examples, and place the indirect object 
first, omitting the preposition. 

Ex. — I lent father a book. 

486. Change any twelve of the above infinitives to parti- 
cipial nouns. 

Ex. — They began singing. 

487. Write connected sentences upon some subject; examine 
and classify your phrases. 

Suggestion.— It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the pupil that the 
frequent use of the pen is the true method for disclosing and removing the many 
defects which otherwise might never be brought to his knowledge. Take 
familiar topics, and write often. Nothing else will make the forms of the lan- 
guage familiar. 



SECTION V. 
THE PHRASE USED AS AN ADVERBIAL ELEMENT. 

General Use of the Adverbial Phrase. 

488. Whenever the phrase is used to limit a verb or 
adjective by denoting some relation of place, time, cause, or 
manner, it is called an adverbial element of the second class. 

Ex. — The messenger came from Washington. "We left on Tuesday. He ran 
for fear. You wrote in haste. 

(a.) Since the phrase denotes an adverbial relation, it can often be changed to 
an adverb. So also the adverb may often be changed to a phrase. 

Exercise and Model for Analysis and Parsing. 

489. Analyze— Vie left on Tuesday = S P v 2 . 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 



We 
Left 
We 
Left 



is the subject, and 

is the predicate, both principal elements of the first class. 

is not limited. 



is limited by the phrase " on Tuesday," an adverbial element 
of the second class, denoting the time of leaving. 

On ... is a preposition, and shows the relation of "Tuesday" to 
" leave ;" according to Rule XIII. 

Tuesday is a noun, etc., and completes the relation of " on ;" accord- 
ing to Rule XIV. 

490. Write connected sentences of your own, and change 
any of the words to phrases, 

13* 149 



150 EXERCISES UPON PHRASES DENOTING PLACE. 

Phrases Denoting Place. 

491. Phrases, like adverbs of place, denote three rela- 
tions, — whither, whence, where. The first two refer to 
direction; the third, to locality, or rest in a place. 

492. Tendency to a place (whither f) is indicated by to, 
toward, into, up, down, and sometimes for. 

(a.) Tendency in a vertical direction is indicated by the opposites up and 
down; in a horizontal direction, by along, if it has no reference to a limit; by 
toward, if it only approaches a limit ; by to, if it reaches it ; and by into, if it 
enters it. 

493. Tendency from a place (whence f) is denoted by from, 
out of. 

494. Locality, or rest in a place (where f), relates to the 
different dimensions of space, and is represented by the 
opposites in, out of; within, without; before, behind, or 
after; over, under; above, beneath, or below; on or upon, 
underneath. To these are added at, near, round, around, 
about, across, along, beside, through. 

(a.) Between and betwixt denote a place between two positions. Among and 
amidst refer to several positions. 

Exercise npon Phrases Denoting Place. 

495. Analyze the following propositions, and parse the 
phrases : — 

The kangaroo lives in New Ha^and. Burgoyne surrendered at 
Saratoga. A treaty of peace was concluded at Marseilles. Napoleon 
was banished to St. Helena. The battle was fought at Vittoria. The 
church stands beside the river. Mesopotamia was situated between 
two rivers. The nuncio came from Rome. High on a throne of royal 
state Satan exalted sat. The lamp of his zeal burns on brighter and 
brighter amid the dust of parchments. 

Ex. — The kangaroo lives in New Holland = a S P v 2 ; S = kangaroo ; P = lives; 
aP= the kangaroo; v 2 = in New Holland; P v 2 = lives in New Holland. 



JPHRASES DENOTING TIME. 151 

496. Write sentences of your own, limiting the predicates 
by the following phrases : — 

Over the hill ; on the ground ; up the tree ; to New York ; from 
Philadelphia ; through the air ; on the steps ; toward the east ; beside 
the wall; around the garden; by Long Island; along the road; 
athwart the sky. 

Ex. — The horse ran over the hill. 

497. Change the following adverbs to equivalent phrases, 
and apply them in sentences of your own : — 

Here, there, hither, thither, hence, thence, eastward, westward, 
homeward, somewhere, nowhere, everywhere, yonder. 

Ex. — The consul resides in this place. 

498. Write ten sentences limiting the predicates by phrases 
denoting place. Let five refer to direction, and five to 
locality. 



Phrases Denoting Time. 

499. Of two points of time — that of the speaker and a 
specified time — the specified time may be denoted by the 
phrase. 

500. Phrases, like adverbs, may refer to the past, present, 
and future ; but, unlike them, may denote three relations 
in reference to each of these three grand divisions. 

(a.) Phrases are used to mark the time of an event more definitely. They 
may denote & point, & period, or frequency of time, and, like the adverb, answer 
the questions, When ? How long t How often f 

(b.) Frequency is generally expressed by the noun times, limited by some 
numeral denoting the number of repetitions ; as, " It was done [for] four times." 
Below four times, the adverb is generally used ; as, once, twice, thrice. 

(c.) The preposition is often omitted in phrases denoting either of the above 
relations, and in those denoting frequency it is rarely expressed; as, "We 
labored all day;''' "The steamer left last Monday;" "Randolph crossed the 
Atlantic sixteen times in nine years." 



152 PHRASES DENOTING CAUSE OR SOURCE. 

(d.) The following table contains the principal prepositions employed to denote 
the different relations of time : — 

r 1. Point . . . = at, on, in. xvitkin, by. 

I. Time simultaneous. < 2. Period . . =for, during, through, throughout. 

v 3. Frequency. 

{1. Point . . . = before, ere, toward. 

2. Period . . = till, until. 

3. Frequency=/or. 

si. Point . . . = after. 

III. Time subsequent. < 2. Period . . =from, since. 

v 3. Frequency=/or. 

(e.) A point of time is often denoted by the preposition and participle ; as, 
" I went, on hearing the news." 

(/.) Between and betwixt denote both antecedent and subsequent time, since 
they refer to two points; as, " I shall leave between Monday and Thursday." 



Exercise upon Phrases Denoting Time. 

501. Analyze the folloiving propositions, and tell whether 
the phrases denote a time simultaneous with, antecedent to, or 
subsequent to, the time of the event: — 

The steamer left on Friday. The cars will arrive at twelve. Some 
birds remain throughout the year. My cousin stayed a week (524). 
The work must be completed before Saturday. The stage will arrive 
toward morning. The president stayed till Monday. I have been 
here since sunrise. The boat was repaired six times. 

502. Write ten sentences each containing some phrase 
denoting time. 

503. Select ten sentences from your reading lesson each 
having a phrase denoting time. 

Phrases Denoting Cause or Source. 

504. Phrases which denote cause or source generally 
answer the questions, Why f On what account? For 
what purpose f From what source f 



PHRASES DENOTING MANNER. 153 

Ex. — Christ was betrayed for money. 

(a.) The prepositions used to denote these relations are, most commonly, for, 
with, of, from, by, through. To these add the phrases on account of and 
because of. 

505. The infinitive often expresses a moral cause or 
motive. 

Ex. — He went to see. 

(a.) The infinitive, commonly called absolute, denotes a purpose ; as, " To con- 
fess the truth, I was present." 

506. The participial noun often expresses a cause or 
motive. 

Ex. — He was arrested for stealing. 

Exercise upon Phrases Denoting Cause. 

507. Symbolize the following examples, and explain each 
symbol. 

The poor man died of hunger. The woman fainted from fright. 
The farmer was imprisoned for debt. The soldier fights for glory. The 
party were travelling for pleasure. The victim seemed, by his dress, 
to be a sailor. The children went to see the animals. They remained 
to visit their friends. Washington sent an officer to reconnoitre the 
enemy's camp. We stopped to see the consul. 

508. Write ten sentences, limiting each 'predicate by a 
phrase denoting cause. 

Phrases Denoting Manner. 

509. Phrases denoting manner, like their corresponding 
adverbs, may denote either quality or quantity. Those 
which denote quality answer the question, How f 

Ex. — The messenger came (IToiv f) in haste. 

Those which denote quantity answer the question, How much ? 

Ex. — The wall was ten rods long. 

(a.) Phrases denoting quality are commonly connected with verbs ; those 
denoting quantity with adjectives. 



154 PHRASES DENOTING MANNER. 

510. Phrases answering the question, How f are, — 

1. Those which show how anything is done ; as, " The height of the 
mountain was measured ivith accuracy." 

2. Those which show a resemblance; as, "The water rushed like a 
torrent." 

3. Those which show the means or instrument; as, "Turenne was 
killed with a cannon ball." 

4. Those which denote accompaniment; as, "Abraham went with 
Lot." 

5. Those which denote agency ; as, " The world was made by him." 

Such phrases as "with certainty," "in truth,'' "without doubt," show the 
manner of the assertion, and are therefore expanded forms of the modal adverbs 
"certainly," "truly," "doubtless." 

511. Quantity may be spoken of absolutely or by way of 
comparison. 

Ex. — The horse is twenty years old. The horse is too old for service. 

512. Quantity used absolutely may mark, — 

1. Degree of magnitude ; as, " She was modest to excess." 

2. Measure of magnitude; as, "The wall is ten feet high." 

3. The measure of excess; as, "He is four inches taller than his 
brother." 

Observe, that the preposition is not used in case of measure. 

513. An attribute may be predicated of a subject, so as 
to show that it exists in quantity or degree equal to or 
unequal to the use which is to be made of it. The former 
is called comparison of equality ; the latter, of inequality. 

Ex. — Medicine is good [not in itself, but] for a sick man. The medicine is too 
powerful [not for all complaints, but] for a chronic affection. 

514. In comparison of equality, when the second term 
is a verbal idea, the infinitive, with or without its subject, 
or the participial noun may be used 



EXERCISE UPON PHRASES DENOTING MANNER. 155 

Ex. — Prunes are good for eating, or to eat. The cake is too rich for the child 
to eat. 

(a.) Comparison of equality is indicated, first, by the simple adjective with 
for; secondly, by enough or sufficiently .... for, or the simple infinitive without 
"for;" thirdly, by so ... . as, with the infinitive; as, "Milk is good for 
children;" " The apples are ripe enough for use, or to use;" " Smith was so artful 
as to extricate himself." 

515. Inequality is used to denote excess or defect. 

Ex. — The undertaking was too great for so slight a preparation. 
The preparation is not equal in magnitude to the undertaking. 
(a.) The superlative degree takes after it the noun denoting the object with 
which the subject is compared ; as, " Achilles was the bravest of the Greeks." 

516. The second term may be, as above, an infinitive or 
a participial noun. 

Ex. — It is too stormy for the boat to leave to-night. 

(a.) Sometimes the " to " of the infinitive is omitted ; as, " We could do no less 
than receive it." 

(6.) Comparison of inequality is denoted, first, hy too ... . for, or the simple 
infinitive without " for ;" secondly, by more or less .... than, with the infinitive ; 
as, " He was too young for the situation, or to take the situation ;" " You can do 
no less than invite bim." 



Exercise upon Phrases denoting Manner. 

517. Analyze the following propositions, symbolize them, 
and parse the phrases : — 

The anchor clung to the rock with tenacity. The elephant takes his 
food with his trunk. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. They have 
rushed through like a hurricane. They devoured the earth like an 
army of locusts. The Georgium Sidus was discovered by Herschel. 
Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin. The man was 
culpable to a great degree. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety 
men. The walls of Babylon were fifteen miles long. The water is too 
cold for bathing. The coat is too gay for an old man. 

518. Write sentences limiting the predicates by the following 
phrases denoting agency. Then cliange the verb to the active 
voice : — 



156 SPECIAL CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

By Columbus ; by Moses ; by whales ; by doves ; by Washington ; 
by Cromwell ; by Socrates ; by Judas ; by Arnold ; by Paul ; by 
rabbits ; by insects ; by serpents ; by bees ; by labor. 

Ex. — America was discovered by Columbus = Columbus discovered America. 

519. Write sentences limiting the predicates by the following 
miscellaneous phrases :— 

In haste ; for a boy ; with rapidity ; like thunder ; ten miles ; six 
feet ; seven rods ; for me to do ; with William ; with a sword. 

520. Change the following adverbs into phrases, and 
employ them in sentences of your own : — 

Carefully, wisely, courageously, unblushingly, tenderly, diligently, 
harmlessly, furiously, despondingly, thoughtfully, incautiously, rapidly, 
boldly, timidly, foolishly, brightly, modestly, painfully, elegantly. 

Ex. — He managed with care. 

521. Write or find ten sentences containing phrases 
denoting manner. 

(a.) The elements of a sentence, so far as developed, may be thus represented : 

a S Po, or a 2 S^ P 2 So2. 



Special Cautions and Directions. 

522. Be careful to select that exponent or formative 

which conforms to usage and expresses the true relation. 
For auxiliaries see (204). 

The following are wrong, — make the correction. I differ with you. The case 
is different to what I expected. A sentence consists in a subject, a predicate, 
and modifiers. A planet has some resemblance with a star. He had little influ- 
ence with his brother. The two brothers quarrelled among themselves. The 
particles flow freely between themselves. This is a matter with which I am not 
interested. There is no need for two coats. There was a perpetual feud between 
these three clans. 

523. Be careful to place the formative as well as the 
whole phrase in its true position. 



SPECIAL CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 157 

(a.) In interrogative sentences, the auxiliary and the preposition of the inter- 
rogative phrase should stand first. Say, To whom did he speak ? not, Whom did 
he speak to ? 

(b.) The whole phrase should be placed so as not even to suggest an erroneous 
meaning. Correct the following : — The witness was ordered to withdraw in conse- 
quence of being intoxicated, by motion of an honorable member. "Wanted, a 
young man to take care of some horses, of a religious turn of mind. 

524. The preposition should be, — 

A. Omitted. 1. When the substantive is used adverbially to denote the mea- 
sure of time, magnitude (512. 2), etc. They tarried a week, not for or during, 
except when special emphasis is required. The wall is seven feet high. 

2. When the insertion is needless; as, We entreat thee to hear us, — not, We 
entreat of thee, etc. His servants ye are whom ye obey, — not to whom. What 
went ye out for to see ? 

3. After the first term of a co-ordinate series of phrases, except when they are 
made emphatic; as, "We searched through cellar, chamber, and garret." 

B. Inserted. When the sense, or when established usage, requires it. Insert 
the proper prepositions in place of the dash. God expelled them — the garden. 
— What use is it to him ? — What time did he leave ? It is worthy — your notice. 

C. Repeated, in co-ordinate phrases, when they are to be presented with 
emphasis or with contrast. For examples, see 2 Cor. vi. 5 ; also xi. 23-28. 

525. Be careful to point off by the comma any phrase 
which is loosely connected, is removed from its proper 
connection, or is a term of a co-ordinate series. 

Ex. — By accent, is meant a stress of voice on one syllable of a word to dis- 
tinguish it from another. In general, the adverb should be placed near the word 
which it limits. And now abideth faith, hope, charity. These are what I shall 
term the sweeps, the bend, the slides, and the closes. 
14 



SECTION VI. 

COMPLEX AND COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 

Formation of Complex Elements. 

526. Each element of a sentence may become complex, 
either by uniting two dissimilar simple elements of the 
second class, or by joining one of the first and one of the 
second. 

527. The essential point of dissimilarity in the parts of 
any complex element is, that one simple element stands as 
principal or basis, and that all others are subordinate to it. 

Ex. — The lawyer fully established the claims of his client. <- 

Here the objective element, " the claims of his client," is complex. " Claims" 
is the basis, and •' the" and '•' of his client" are subordinate to it. 

528. In the formation of a complex element containing 
simple elements of different classes, — 

1. An element of the first class may be the basis ; in which case the 
whole is said to be of the first class. 

Ex. — Nobility of birth does not insure nobility of mind. = ft 2 S P 2 -{oa2- 

2. An element of the second class may be the basis, and to it may 
be joined one of the first. 

Ex. — The three great apostles of practical atheism are health, wealth and 

power. = 3aj S( p 2+ p 2+ p 2)# 

3. An element of the second class may be the basis, and to it may 
be joined another element of the same class. 

Ex. — Two of her sources of strength are physical. = a 3" S P i 
158 



MODELS FOR ANALYZING COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 159 

The last two combinations are complex elements of the second class, because 
the basis of each is of the second class. A subordinate element of the second 
class is joined to its basis by a connective. 

(a.) Complex elements may be formed by either of the following combinations 
of simple elements : — 

EXAMPLES. 
1 and 1 = very quickly. =Vv 



Class I. By joining-, 

1 and 2 = hope oj reward. — o3. • 



Here "hope" is regarded as the subject of a proposition 

2 and 1 = in great haste. = ct V ■ 

2 and 2 = with assurance oj success. = y 3. • 



Class II. By joining^ 



Models for Analyzing Complex Elements. 

529. Analyze— The whole course of his life has been dis- 
tinguished by generous actions. = *ajS PV. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 

Course is the subject, and 

Has been distinguished is the predicate. 

The subject, course, . . is limited by "the" and "whole," both 
adjective elements of the first class. It is 
also limited by the phrase " of his life," a 
complex adjective element of the second class, 
used to explain the "course." "Of life" is 
the basis. "Life" is limited by "his," a 
simple adjective element of the first class, 
denoting whose life. 

The predicate, has been distinguished, is limited by the phrase "by 
generous actions," a complex adverbial ele- 
ment of the second class, showing how the 
course of his life had been distinguished. 
The basis of the phrase is "by actions." 
" Actions " is limited by " generous," a simple 
adjective element of the first class, showing 
what kind of actions. 

In these examples, the basis of each complex element is itself an element of 
the second class, and the phrase is formed by joining classes second and first. 



160 MODELS FOR ANALYZING COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 

530. Analyze — The excessive labor undergone in preparing for 
his examination, occasioned a dangerous illness. = v 2 v 2 | a S P2 a 0. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. 

Labor is the subject, and 

Occasioned .... is the predicate. 

The subject, labor, is limited by "the" and "excessive," both simple 
adjective elements of the first class. It is also 
limited by " undergone in preparing for his exami- 
nation," a complex adjective element of the first 
class (a v 2 v 2 ), used to denote the occasion or cir- 
cumstance of the labor. " Undergone " is the basis. 
It is an adjective element of the first class, and 
belongs to "labor" (Rule V.). It is limited by 
"in preparing for his examination," a complex 
adverbial element of the second class (v 2 v 2 ), de- 
noting how the labor was undergone. " In pre- 
paring" is the basis. "Preparing" is limited by 
"for his examination" (vv 2 ), a complex adverbial 
element of the second class, showing for what, or 
why, he was preparing. The basis is, " for exami- 
nation." "Examination" is limited by "his," a 
simple adjective element of the first class, showing 
whose examination. 

The predicate, occasioned, is limited by "a dangerous illness," a com- 
plex objective element of the first class (2 a o), de- 
noting what the labor occasioned. " Illness," the 
basis, is the object of "occasioned" (Rule VIII.), 
and is limited by "a" and "dangerous," both 
simple adjective elements of the first class. 

531. Analyze the following sentences, and separate each 
complex element into its component parts, according to the 
model, and give the symbol : — 

The Spartan youth were accustomed to go barefoot. Many a 
despicable wretch lies under a marble monument, decorated with a 
flattering epitaph. Italy is a large peninsula, bounded on the north 
by the Alps. The king returned in the gleam of his arms. After the 
denial of the charge, he withdrew in dignified displeasure. Suddenly 
the sound of the signal-gun broke the stillness of the night. The 



EXERCISES IN ANALYZING COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 161 

same is true of literary men. The sentinel stars kept their watch in 
the sky. Through many a dark and dreary vale they passed. Thus 
with the year seasons return. 

I have seen thy wondrous might 
Through the shadows of this night. 

532. Write sentences, limiting the subject of each by a 
complex adjective element which shall have for its basis one 
of the following participles or adjectives placed at the head of 
the sentence : — 

Gliding, eager, feeding, anxious, desirous, floating, conscious, 
encircled, enriched, regardless, flying, searching, waiting, opening, 
commencing, wading, poring, finding, aware, awake, ambitious, 
indignant, robed, detained, amazed, confused. 

Ex. — ■Gliding along the edge of the horizon, a distant sail sometimes attracted 
our attention. Eager to attain to the highest rank, he labored incessantly. 

533. Write complex elements based on the following nouns 
or infinitives used as objects, and introduce them into 
sentences of your own : — 

Laws, congress, constitution, country, work, discourse, fable, 
dialogue, catalogue, inventory, league, truce, country, labor; to 
study ; to invite ; to leave ; to stay ; to sing ; to have run. 

Ex. — The Romans examined the. laws of Solon. 

534:. Add simple or complex elements, either of the first or 
second class, or both, to the following phrases used as 
adverbial elements : — 

In honor ; on returning ; by searching ; in the capital ; through the 
air ; on opening ; to view (inf. of purpose) ; to solicit ; to invite ; 
over hills ; under the wall ; in search ; into the town ; for stealing ; of 
his breaking ; of her being sick ; of his being a scholar. 

Ex. — One hundred guns were fired in honor of the victory gained by the Ameri- 
cans over the British. 

535. Write six sentences, according to the following symbol- 
ized models : 

a2 O I < oa I aOrOO > aOfva! 2a S P \ aa ) S Pv2° ] 3aS P v 2a2 , 

14* 



162 FORMATION OF COMPOUND ELEMETS. 



Formation of Compound Elements. 

536. Compound elements of the second class, like those 
of the first, are formed by uniting two or more similar 
simple or complex elements of the second class ; as, " To 
read and to write are profitable." 

For connectives, see (376). 

(a.) It should be borne in mind, that a simple element of the second class 
has a connective of its own, which usually unites it subordinately to some pre- 
ceding word. Besides this, the parts of a compound element of the second class 
are united to each other by one of the co-ordinate conjunctions. 

(6.) The essential point of similarity is the rank which the elements sustain to 
each other. They must be equal in rank (see 379. a.). 

537. The component parts of a compound element should 
be of the same class; that is, both of the first or both of 
the second. 

To this rule there may be a few exceptions ; as, " The pupil performed his 
task promptly and with care;" better, "promptly and carefully," or " with prompt- 
ness and ivith care." 

538. Compound elements may be formed by uniting, — 

1. Two or more principal elements: — 

Ex. — For me to labor, and for you to be idle, would be unjust. The lad was 
without money and without friends = penniless and friendless. 

2. Two or more subordinate elements : — 

Ex. — The islands of Cuba and [of] Hayti belong to the West Indies. The 
boy learned to read and write. You may pass through the house and the garden. 
See (46. B. 2). 

539. Besides compound and complex elements, we may 
have various elements of the same name not connected 
with one another. 

Ex. — He went from New York — to Boston — on Tuesday — to see a friend 
= S P 4 v 2 . Though these render the predicate complex, they are grammatically 
independent of one another. 



EXERCISES IN FORMING SIMPLE SENTENCES. 163 

(a.) By uniting simple, complex, and compound elements of the first and 
second classes, and by using also those which are independent of each other, we 
may form extended simple sentences. 

(6.) Observe that the materials employed in this chapter resemble, in their 
use, those of- Chapter I. There are, — 

( 1. Subject. 
I. The substantive phrase (the inf.), used as ... \ 2. Attribute, i ' ,, r Vf a G ' 

l3. Object. I 2 ' MocMer - 

{1. Predicate. 
2 Modifier 

III. The adverbial phrase, used as Modifier. 



Exercises in Forming Simple Sentences. 

540. Analyze and symbolize the following, and point out 
the compound elements : — 

A stream of flame and smoke issued from the chimney. The hearts 
of the brothers were not divided during the peace and the troubles of 
this life. The obligation of respect and love for parents never ceases. 
Hampden placed himself at the head of his countrymen and across 
the path of tyranny. They were stationed there to defend the fort 
and to awe the citizens. In the northern parts of Europe the victory 
of Protestantism was rapid and decisive. In the course of events, 
this among other causes produced fierce and bloody contentions 
between them. 

541. Write ten sentences, introducing into them a compound 
element of the second class. Let the first five be connected by 
"and;" the next three be connected by "but;" arid the 
remainder by "or," or "nor." 

542. Write sentences uniting the words between the semi- 
colons into a compound adjective or adverbial element of the 
second class: — 

Robber, murderer; truth, humanity; zeal, energy; England, 
America ; Europe, Asia ; hope, fear ; day, night. 

Ex. — The name of the robber and murderer has been ascertained. 



164 EXERCISES IN FORMING SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

54:3. Construct sentences that shall have elements of the 
second class, compound, complex, and others independent of 
one another, 

544. Analyze the following, and show their general forms by 
using symbols : — 

An orator may often, by this kind of style, gain great admiration, 
without being nearer to his proper end. The unfortunate man passed 
from one subject to another, without being aware of the abruptness 
of his transitions. The coach will leave the city in the morning before 
sunrise. Recounting the dark catalogue of abuses already suffered, 
and appealing to the supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of 
their intentions, they shook off for ever their allegiance to the British 
crown, and pronounced the United Colonies an independent nation. 
The boat will sail from Norwich to New York on Thursday. 

The use of symbols has its chief advantage in enabling the learner to grasp the 
form of a sentence at a glance. It is best to avoid too much detail in pointing 
out the complex elements. Thus, the first sentence above is a S P <o 2v > and 
the last is aS P - 3 v • 

545. Analyze the following, and give their forms: — 

King James wrote a treatise on the heinous sin of using tobacco. 
The ancients, for want of telescopes, formed many absurd notions of 
the heavenly bodies. The sun, according to some ancient philosophers, 
quenches his flames in the ocean. Alfred the Great was not only the 
king, but the father, of his people. I speak not of temporal but of 
eternal interests. No one ought, unnecessarily, to wound the feelings, 
or insult the religious prepossessions, of his neighbors. We have 
taken up arms, not to betray, but to defend, our country. Study 
serves for delight, for ornament, and for ability. To attempt to work 
upon the vulgar with fine sense is like attempting to hew blocks of 
marble with a razor. One of the noblest of the Christian virtues is 
to love our enemies. Sincerity and truth form the basis of every 
virtue. The man of genuine virtue must be endowed with a sagacious 
judgment and an ardent zeal. 

The king was on his throne, 
And satraps thronged the hall ; 
A thousand bright lamps shone 
O'er that high festival. 



EXERCISES IN FORMING SIMPLE SENTENCES. 165 

54:6. Write interrogative sentences; use and explain the 

following interrogative plwases : To whom f In what f For 
what 1 ! By which f In what place f On what condition f 
By whose authority t On ivhose account! 

54-7. Write interrogative sentences introduced by the follow- 
ing, and give the answers in full: Who ? Whose ? Which ? 
Where? When? Why? How? Do? Shall? Will? 
May? Would? Can? Does? 

Be careful to draw a line under that part of the answer to which the interro- 
gative refers, and be sure to use the (?) and ( . ) correctly. 

548. Write a description of your own house and grounds. 

Suggestion. — The learner must have perceived already that grammatical 
distinctions pertain to language after it is formed ; they must not be consciously 
recognized in the act of forming it. We never construct sentences in practical 
life by grammatical rules as such. Rules may aid in forming habits, and estab- 
lished habits may lead us to conform spontaneously to what the rules require. In 
exercises like that in (548) it is required to form sentences from the immediate 
impulse of thought, and not by the direct application of grammatical rules. 
This primary movement is cultivated by indirect means. See Chapter VI., 
Section I. 



CHAPTEK IV. 

(COMPLEX SENTENCES.) 

ELEMENTS OF THE THIRD CLASS-SUBORDINATE 
CLAUSES. 



SECTION I. 

NATURE OF ELEMENTS OF THE THIRD CLASS. 

Rank of two United Clauses. 

549. Instead of a word or a phrase, a simple sentence 

itself may become one of the five elements of a higher 
sentence. 

Ex. — When spring comes, the flowers will bloom. 

550. A sentence or proposition thus used is called subor- 
dinate, because it depends upon another, which, in refer- 
ence to it, is called principal. 

551. An element of the third class is, therefore, a prop- 
osition, and when subordinate, is used as an organic part 
of a sentence. 

(a.) It will be seen, first, that words and phrases may be united so as to form 
a simple sentence ; and, secondly, that this sentence may lose its distinctness, 
and become an organic part of another sentence. 

(b.) In this use of the proposition as an element of the sentence, it is not any 
one idea or conception and its relation that the mind rests upon, but the truth or 
fact asserted by the whole clause. It differs from the phrase in this : the former 
166 



SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 107 

presents a distinct conception, the latter an opinion, a truth, or a judgment 
affirmed. The clause involves personality , mode, and tense, as well as single 
ideas, whereas single words and phrases represent nothing but single ideas. 

552. The propositions which unite to form a sentence 
are called clauses. 

553. A complex sentence is formed by uniting a princi- 
pal and a subordinate clause. 

(a.) A complex sentence is formed by uniting two dissimilar simple sentences, 
just as a complex element is formed by uniting two dissimilar simple elements. 

(5.) When a complex sentence is spoken of as having a principal and a sub- 
ordinate clause, it should be understood that grammatical subordination is 
intended, and not the relative logical value of the thoughts. Thus, when it was 
said, " The telegraph announces that the richest and most important part of 
Chicago is in flames," no one would assign the chief logical importance to the 
principal clause. 



Component Parts of the Subordinate Clause. 

554. The parts which are essential to a subordinate 
clause are a connective, a subject, and a predicate. 

555. The connective is called subordinate, because it 
renders the proposition which follows it subordinate to 
some part of the principal proposition with which it is 
connected. 

(a.) The connective is as much a part of the subordinate proposition as the 
preposition is a part of a phrase. In fact, the same word is often used in one 
construction to connect a phrase and in another to connect a clause ; as, " The 
ship sailed before sunrise "= " The ship sailed before the sun rose." 

556. These connectives are parsed by the following 
rule : — 

Male XVJ. — Subordinate connectives are used to 
join dissimilar elements. 

557. The subject or the predicate of a subordinate 



168 USES OF THE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. 

proposition may be limited by an element of the first, 
second, or third class. 

(a.) When the subject, or predicate of a subordinate clause is limited by 
another clause, the latter is subordinate in the second degree. 



The Clause Considered as a Whole. 

558. The subordinate clause, like a single word or 
phrase, may form any one of the five elements of a 
sentence. 

559. Subordinate clauses are divided, according to their 
nature and use, into substantive, adjective, and adverbial. 

560. A substantive clause may be regarded as a sub- 
stantive or an infinitive expanded into a proposition. 

Ex. — Stealing is base = To steal is base = That one should steal is base. 

561. An adjective clause may be regarded as an adjective, 
a participle, or an adjective phrase expanded into a propo- 
sition. 

Ex. — A generous man = a man of generosity — a man who is generous — will 
be honored. 

562. An adverbial clause may be regarded as an adverb, 
or an adverbial phrase expanded into a proposition. 

Ex. — The ship sailed early = before sunrise = before the sun rose. 



Uses of the Substantive Clause. 

563. The substantive clause, like the substantive, may 
become the subject, attribute, or object of a sentence. 

564. Substantive clauses are of two kinds, those which 
contain a statement and those which contain an inquiry. 



USES OF THE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. 1G9 

565. Those which contain a statement are introduced by 
tha^ that not, and sometimes bid or but that 

Ex. — That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 

56G. Clauses which contain an inquiry are introduced 
by the several interrogatives, who? which? what? where? 
when? why? how? whether? whence? whither? wherefore? 

(a.) The interrogatives whither, whether and wherefore, are becoming iu a 
measure obsolete iu the present usages of the language. 

507. In the use of interrogative clauses in a complex 
sentence the interrogative may be, — 

1. The principal clause ; the sentence is then a complex interroga- 
tive sentence. 

Ex. — Do you knoiv that your sister has returned? 

2. The subordinate clause ; the sentence is then a complex declara- 
tive sentence. 

Ex. — Your father inquired when I had heard from Madras. 

Observe that the interrogation point is placed at the close of the former and 
the period at the close of the latter. 

(a.) When an interrogative sentence is made subordinate, and becomes an 
organic part of another sentence, it loses, in a measure, its interrogative charac- 
ter, unless quoted directly. There is often a change of person, and generally a 
change of arrangement: as, " How did you obtain the situation?" " lie asked 
me how /obtained the situation." 

(&.) The interrogative becomes the connective to the subordinate clause. 
Hence, when interrogative pronouns are used as connectives, they should be 
carefully distinguished from relative pronouns, which are used as the connectives 
of adjective clauses. Compare " I know not who did it" with " I know not the 
man who did it." 
15 



SECTION II. 

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. 

Kind of Clauses Used as Principal Elements. 

568. When a subordinate clause is used as the subject 
or predicate of a complex sentence, it becomes a principal 
element of the third class. 

569. The substantive clause only can be used as a 
principal element. 

The Substantive Clause as Subject. 

570. The substantive clause, like the substantive or sub- 
stantive phrase, may become the subject of a sentence. 

Ex. — That the earth revolves on its axis has been clearly proved. 

(a.) By the idiom mentioned in (444) the substantive clause, as subject, is 
first represented by it, standing at the head of the sentence, and is itself placed 
after the predicate. 

Ex. — It has been clearly proved that the earth revolves on its axis. 

Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 

571. Analyze — Who was the author of Junius's Letters has 
never been satisfactorily determined = S 3 PI 2V. 

It is a complex sentence, because it contains a principal and a subordi- 
nate clause. 

Who was the author of Junius's letters, or S 3 , is the subject of the 
principal clause. 
170 



MODEL FOR ANALYSIS AXD PARSING. 171 

Has been determined, or ?\ is the predicate. 

The predicate is limited by " satisfactorily, "an adverbial 

element of the first class, denoting manner ; 
also by never, of the same class. 

Who was the author, etc., is a principal element of the third class. 
It is used as a noun, third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, nominative case, 
and is the subject of the sentence ; accord- 
ing to Rule I. (137). 

Who is the subject of the subordinate clause, 

and 

Was author is the predicate. 

Author is limited first by "the," and secondly by 

" of Junius's Letters." 

Who is an interrogative pronoun, used in a sub- 
ordinate clause. It has no antecedent. It 
is of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, nominative case, and 
is the subject of " was ;" according to 
Rule I. It connects the two dissimilar 
clauses ; according to Rule XVI. (556). 

"Who was author" may be considered as the grammatical subject of the com- 
plex sentence, and " Who was the author of Junius's Letters" the logical sub- 
ject. The connection of who will be hest seen by using the idiom in (444). 

572. Analyze the following complex sentences according to 
the model: — 

That the earth is a sphere is easily proved. That honor and fame 
are the offspring of labor is the eternal law of nature. That sorrow 
robed the happy home in mourning was enough. That no man is 
justified by the law in the sight of God is evident. Whether the 
truth will be made to appear is uncertain. That a peculiar insensi- 
bility exists to the obligations of the parental and filial relation is too 
evident to need any extended illustration. That children may grow 
up as they please seems to be the prevalent opinion. Where the 
robber concealed his stolen treasures has never been ascertained. 



172 EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

"When letters were first used is not certain. Why he resigned his 
office will soon be made known. How he made his escape is a 
mystery. From what place he came cannot be ascertained. In what 
manner he did it is wholly unknown. Who gave the information has 
been ascertained. Will he do it? is the question. 

573. Write the above sentences, and introduce each by " it." 

Ex. — It is the eternal law of nature that honor and fame are the offspring 
of labor. 

574. Write substantive clauses to complete the following ; 
and then change them so as to place the subject before the 
predicate, dispensing with " it :" — 

It is evident. It is uncertain. It appears. It has been ascer- 
tained. It is mysterious. It is well known. It will be shown. It is 
true. It is probable. It was denied by none. 

Ex. — It is evident that the bill will be defeated = That the bill will be defeated 
is evident. 

575. Expand the following substantives and infinitives, 
with the words joined to them in italics, into substantive clauses 
used as subjects : — 

To swear is impious. To err is human. The utility of the telegraph 
is acknowledged. The name of the swimmer is not known. Your 
abuse of my brother is reprehensible. The place of his concealment 
has not been determined. The time of the boat's arrival was well 
known. For him to eat unripe fruit was presumptuous. The cause of 
his delay is unknown. The immortality of the soul is universally 
believed. The paleness of the ink is apparent. The authenticity of 
the Scriptures has been clearly proved. 

Ex. — TJiat one should swear is impious. That the telegraph is useful is 
acknowledged. 

576. Reduce any ten of the preceding substantive clauses to 
nouns or infinitives. 

Ex. — The sphericity of the earth is easily proved. 



THE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE AS PREDICATE. 173 

Suggestion. — At this stage of the learner's progress he has acquired suffi- 
cient insight into the structure of a sentence to enable him to fashion its ele- 
ments according to his own choice. He has gained some knowledge of those 
innumerable devices by which the form of any part of a sentence may be 
changed". He should now have continued practice in changing form, in recasting 
his sentences, in giving neio turns to the thought and the expression, and this 
for the purpose of exercising his judgment as to those forms which are the best. 
The ideas of rhythm, harmony, completeness, proper balance, and the avoidance 
of abruptness must be developed gradually and imperceptibly. 



The Substantive Clause as Predicate. 

577. The substantive clause may become the predicate- 
no mi native after to be. 

Ex. — His pretext was, that he misunderstood the design of the leader = a S P 3 . 

This construction will not need a separate model, since it would be like the 
model (148), with the exception that the predicate-nominative is expanded into a 
clause. See also the preceding model. 



Exercise upon the Clause as Predicate. 

578. Analyze the following complex sentences, and parse the 
predicates : — 

My desire is, that you may succeed. The question is, How shall 
the treasury be replenished ? His pretence was, that the storm of the 
preceding evening prevented his attendance. Our hope is, that no 
such results will follow. Your belief is, that the enemy has crossed 
the mountain. His remark was, that such service is exceedingly 
humiliating. The promise made him was, that he should visit his 
friends the coming autumn. My determination is, that you shall 
attend school in the country. 

579. Write complex sentences to the following subjects, and 
let the predicates be substantive clauses : — 

Question, answer, recommendation, proposal, design, words, 
orders, resolution. 
15* 



SECTION III. 

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS THE ADJECTIVE 
ELEMENT. 

Kind of Clauses used as the Adjectiye Element. 

580. Whenever a clause is used to limit a noun or pro- 
noun in either of the ways mentioned in (231. 1, 2), it is an 
adjective element of the third class. 

Ex. — A man who is industrious will gain respect. 

(a.) The adjective element of the third class asserts (in a subordinate way) 
what, in either of the other classes, is assicmed. Compare " a man who is indus- 
trious" with " a man of industry," or " an industrious man." 

581. A noun may be limited either by an adjective clause 
or a substantive clause used attributively (25. a.). 

Adjective Clauses. 

582. Adjective clauses are introduced by relative pro- 
nouns, which serve to connect them with the limited noun 
or pronoun called the antecedent. 

Ex. — The evil that men do lives after them. 

583. The relative pronoun is, — 

1. Restrictive, when it introduces a clause which, like an adjective, 
limits the application of the antecedent, as in the example above. 

2. Explanatory, when it resumes the idea of the antecedent, either 
in its full extent or as previously denned, and adds another thought. 

Ex. — Solomon, who built the temple in Jerusalem, was the wisest of kings. 

(a.) The relative pronoun, when restrictive, refers to some limiting adjective in 
the principal clause, either expressed or understood, called its correlative; as, 
" That book which you have was printed in 1760." 
174 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 175 

584. The relative pronouns are, — 

Simple, — Who, relating to & person; which, relating to a thing; 
that, relating to either a person or thing ; what, relating to either a 
person or thing. 

Compound, — Whatever, whatsoever, whoso, whoever, whosoever, 
whichever, and whichsoever being composed of the simple pronoun 
and an adverb. 

(a.) The relatives, with their correlatives, may be thus represented : — 

CORRELATIVE. RELATIVE. 

The, ] ( Who. 

This, that, V Person (s) or thing (sW Which. 
These, those, J ( That. 

585. The agreement of the relative is determined by 
the following rule : — 

Hule XVII. — The relative agrees with its ante- 
cedent in person, number, and gender, hut not neces- 
sarily in case. 

(a.) When the antecedent is compound, the relative agrees with it by Rule 
XII. (385) ; when it is a collective noun, the rule which applies to the verb 
(168. b.) is equally applicable to the pronoun. 

586. The case of the relative depends upon the con- 
struction of the adjective clause. 

(a.) The relative may be the subject of the adjective clause; as, " The tempest, 
which was raging with unwonted fury, drove them to the nearest shelter." In 
this relation of the pronoun the adjective clause may be equivalent, 1st, to an 
adjective or participle denoting some property of the antecedent: as, "A man 
who perseveres will be honored "= " A persevering man will be honored ;" 2d, to 
a noun or pronoun in apposition ; as, " Paul, who was an apostle, visited Rome" 
= " Paul, an apostle, visited Rome;" 3d, to a noun in the possessive case; as, 
" Solomons temple was destroyed "= " The temple which was built by Solomon was 
destroyed." 

(b.) The relative may become the adjective element of its clause ; as, " The 
gentleman whose aid was solicited has left town." In this relation of the pro- 
noun, the antecedent or limited word is represented as a possessor ; the relative 
is parsed by Rule VII. (267). 



176 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

(e.) The relative may become the objective element of its clause ; as, " The book 
which I purchased is damaged." In this relation of the relative the adjective 
clause is equivalent to the passive participle; as, : ' The book purchased by me 
was damaged." 

(d.) The relative with a preposition may become the adverbial element of the 
adjective clause; as, " The house in which he lived has passed into other hands." 
In this relation of the relative pronoun, the adjective clause is equivalent to an 
adjective denoting place, time, cause, or manner. The preposition is not unfre- 
quently placed at the end of the clause ; as, " The house which he lived in has 
passed," etc. 

(e.) It not unfrequently happens that the adjective clause, in this last case, 
assumes the form of an adverbial clause, an equivalent relative adverb taking 
the place of the relative pronoun and preposition ; as, " The time in which. Priam 
lived is uncertain "= The time when Priam lived," etc. When the antecedent is 
suppressed, such clauses are strictly adverbial. 

587. Kelatives of double construction represent both the 
antecedent and relative. 

Ex. — What cannot be cured must be endured ^= That which cannot be cured 
must be endured. 

(c.) In such examples as the last the antecedent and adjective clause which 
limits it are equivalent to a substantive ; as, " An incurable evil must be 
endured." The compound relative, as antecedent, is the subject of " must be 
endured;" as relative is the subject of "can be cured." Sometimes it is the 
subject of one verb, and the object of the other. 

588. By an ellipsis of the relative pronoun, as takes its 
place after such, many, and same. 

Ex. — Such as I have, give I unto you = Such as that is which I have, give, etc. 

589. Eelative pronouns often relate, not to a word, but 
to a preceding phrase or clause. 

Ex. — The boy closed the blinds, which darkened the room. 

1. Explanatory clauses introduced by relative pronouns are nearly 
equivalent to independent clauses connected by " and." The relative, 
in such cases, is equivalent to "and he," "and she," or "and it," 

Ex. — He gave me a book which he requested me to read = He gave me a 
book, and requested me to read it. 



EXERCISES AND MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 177 



Substantive Clauses. 

590. A substantive clause is often used to explain the 
meaning of a noun. 

Ex.— The question how ive shall obtain funds has never been raised. The 
hope that he should soon be released sustained him. 

The substantive clause, thus used, resembles the noun in apposition, and may- 
be parsed by Rule V. (25-4), or by Eule VI. (258). 



Exercises and Model for Analysis. 

591. Analyze — A man who finds not satisfaction in himself 
seeks for it in vain elsewhere. = | 3 } 5 P Jo2 v2 . 

It is a complex sentence, because it contains two dissimilar clauses. 

Man is the subject of the principal clause.. 

Seeks is the predicate. 

The subject is limited by " a," also by the clause " who 

finds not satisfaction in himself;" an adjective 
element of the third class, describing "man." 

The complex subject . is " A man who finds not satisfaction in him- 
self" = fS, 

The predicate is limited by " for it," " in vain," and " else- 
where." (Give the name and class of each.) 

The complex predicate is " seeks for it in vain elsewhere." = P^ v2 

Who is the subject of the adjective clause, a 3 . 

Finds is the predicate. 

The predicate is limited, first, by " not ;" secondly, by " satis- 
faction," and thirdly, by "in himself." (Give 
the name and class of each.) 

Who is a relative pronoun, of the third person, 

singular number, masculine gender, according 
to Eule XVII. (585); is the subject of the 
proposition "who finds," etc., according to Rule 
I., and connects this proposition with "man," 
the subject of the principal clause ; according 
to Rule XVI. (556). 



178 EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS. 

592. Analyze the following examples, and parse the rela- 
tive pronouns : — 

Cannot the man who is faithfully attached to religion be relied on 
with confidence? He whom I loved is dead. Xerxes, upon whom 
Fortune had lavished all her favors, proposed a reward to the inventor 
of a new pleasure. Whatever violates nature cannot be innocent. 
Whoever forgets a benefit is ' an enemy to society. Not even the 
magnificent harbor of Constantinople, in which security, depth, and 
expanse are combined, can rival the peerless, land-locked bay of San 
Francisco. We would hail you, as you rise in long succession, to fill 
the places which we now fill. The assumption that our cause is 
declining, is utterly gratuitous. They best can bear reproof who merit 
praise. 

593. Write twenty sentences, limiting the subject of each by 
an adjective clause. In five, let the relative be the subject of 
its clause; in five, let it be the adjective element; in five, the 
objective element; and in five, let it be an adverbial element. 
Let ten of the sentences be interrogative. 

594:. Reduce the adjective clauses in the fii*st part of this 
exercise to simple or complex elements of the first or second 
class. 

Ex. — The promised rewards shall be given. 

595. Convert the following simple sentences into complex 
sentences, by expanding the italicized adjective elements into 
clauses ; then change them into interrogatives : — 

The pride of wealth is contemptible. The well-bred man desires 
only to please. Reproof given in public hardens the heart. Milton 
the poet was blind. The sun, vicegerent of his power, shall rend the 
veil of parting night. A cottage shaded with trees is a pleasant object. 
The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. Csesar, the 
enslaver of his country, was stabbed in the senate-house. The house 
of my father stands near the road. My brother's dog was killed. 

Ex. — The pride which wealth begets is contemptible. Is not the pride which 
wealth begets contemptible? 



SINGLE OBJECT. 179 



596. Write complex sentences to the folloiving compound 
subjects, limiting each by an adjective clause : — 

The boy or the girl. The sun and moon. James or John. The 
fox and the geese. Not the servant, but the master. Susan, and 
not the sister. Neither the man nor the woman. Those books or 
slates. This boy or his parents. Some insect or reptile. Those trees 
or shrubs. 

Ex. — The boy or the girl who painted this picture deserves much praise. See 
suggestion (576). 



SECTION IV. 



SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS THE OBJECTIVE 
ELEMENT. 

Use of the Objective Clause. 

597. When a clause is used to complete the meaning of 
a verb, it is an objective element of the third class. 

Ex. — I perceive that you have ordered a supply. 



Single Object. 

598. Substantive clauses in the objective, generally 
follow verbs denoting, — 

1. Some act or state of the mind, as a perception, an emotion, a 
choice, or a volition. 

2. A declaration, order, or statement 

Ex. — I wish that you would assist me. The farmer declared that his watch 
had gained half an hour in the night. 



180 DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCOURSE— QUOTATIONS. 

(a.) The following are some of the verbs of the first class : see, hear, feel, 
know, think, perceive, wish, anticipate, pray, entreat, desire, imagine, sup- 
pose, expect, hope, fear, suspect, understand, etc. The following are of the 
second: say, declare, tell, announce, relate, assert, affirm, proclaim, report, 
state, notify, show, reply, answer, respond, foretell, deny, order, command, 
direct. 

599. Substantive clauses may follow adjectives, and even 
nouns, derived from these verbs. 

Ex. — I am desirous that you should visit the country. A wish that you might 
participate in our joy has led me to make you this offer. 

600. To substantive clauses properly belong the forms 
of language called — 



Direct and Indirect Discourse— Quotations. 

601. When we quote the language of another, we may 

either represent him as uttering his own words, or we 
may narrate them for him. 

Ex. — He said, " I will do it"=~H.e said that he would do it. The former is 
called direct, and the latter indirect, quotation. 

(a.) In direct quotation the quotation marks ( " " ) should be used. In indirect 
quotation the connective that should introduce the quotation (unless it be a 
question). The person of the subject, the mode and tense of the verb, and the 
arrangement of the parts should be changed, if necessary. (See examples 
above.) 

(6.) Instead of a single clause, sometimes whole pages are quoted as the object 
of a transitive verb. 

(c.) Direct quotation approaches much nearer to a co-ordinate rank with the 
principal clause than indirect. The subordinate connective that is never used; 
and when the quoted language is a question, the interrogation point should 
always be employed. 

(d.) Both direct and indirect quotation, instead of being the object of a verb, 
may often be put in apposition with some noun ; as, " The question how we shall 
do it has never been asked "=" The question, " How shall we do itf" has never 
been asked. 

602. The principal clause is often thrown in between 
the parts of a direct quotation. 

Ex. — " For all that," said the pendulum, " it is very dark here.' 1 



DOUBLE OBJECT. 181 



603. The quotation often becomes the principal clause, 
and that which in other constructions would be principal 
is made a subordinate adverbial clause, introduced by as, 
to denote the authority on which the quoted assertion is 
made. 

Ex. — He left, as he told me, before the arrival of the steamer. 

Such subordinate clauses are nearly allied to modal adverbs. In such con- 
structions the quotation marks are not to be used. 

004. Direct quotation can be changed to indirect by 
removing the quotation marks, inserting a connective, and 
making the requisite changes of person, mode, tense, and 
arrangement 

Double Object. 

605. Besides an objective clause, certain verbs take 
either a direct or an indirect object, with or without a 
preposition. 

Ex. — "We told him that he teas in danger. He intimated to me that my 
services would soon be needed. He taught me that the planets revolve about the 
sun. I asked him whether the tides are caused by the moon's attraction. Here 
the verbs of asking and teaching have two direct objects, as in (306. a.), and the 
passive form of the verb admits either as the subject. 

(a.) It will be seen that a single objective clause is equivalent to two objects, 
like those mentioned in (477). The former becomes its subject, and the latter 
its predicate ; as, " I believed him an honest man"—" I believed that he ivas an 
honest man." " I wish you to go "=" I wish that you would go." 

(b.) Sometimes the substantive clause itself is an indirect object; 1st. With- 
out a preposition ; as, " I was informed that he had arrived" = "of his arrival." 
2d. With a preposition; as, "I was speaking of how we should cancel the 
demand." " Much will depend on who the commissioners are." 

606. When the principal verb assumes the passive form, 

and the objective clause becomes the subject, it commonly 
remains after the predicate, being represented by it, placed 
at the beginning of the sentence. 

Ex. — He said that the measure could never be adopted=/£ was said (by him) 
that the measure could never be adopted. 
16 



182 MODEL FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 

Exercises and Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

607. Analyze — Do you know that you have wronged him? = SP 2 o 3 . 

It is a complex sentence, because it is composed of dissimilar clauses ; 
interrogative, because it asks a question. 

You is the subject of the principal clause. 

Do know ... is the predicate. 

The predicate . is limited by " that you have wronged him/' o 3 , an 
objective element of the third class, denoting what is 
known. It is used as a noun, third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, and is the object of " do 
know ;" according to Rule VIII. (296. 1). " Do know 
that you have wronged him," or P 2 o 3 , is the complex 
predicate. 

You is the subject of the subordinate clause. 

Have wronged is the predicate. 

The predicate . is limited by " him," a simple objective element, etc. 

That is a subordinate conjunction, and connects the sub-. 

stantive clause, " you have wronged him," to the predi- 
cate of the principal clause, "know;" according to 
Rule XVI. (556). 

608. Analyze the following prop)ositions according to the 
model, and apply the symbols : — 

I believed that all these objects existed within me. I know not 
whether he will go. But I know why you lent the umbrella. We 
knew whose place was vacated. Will you tell me why you are sad ? 
The teacher showed me wherein I had erred. Will you tell me why 
we invert the divisor? "I admire," said Aristodemus, "Homer for 
his epic poetry." He inquired, "Who comes there?" Do you sup- 
pose you will visit the Vienna Exposition ? " Horatius," quoth the 
consul, "as thou sayest, let it be." "Poor boy!" said Primrose half 
aside, "what a disappointment awaits him !" My child, they will say 
that the world is fair. " Why, I've nothing but my life ; here's my 
head," cries Hcrve Riel. 



EXERCISES FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 183 

609. Write ten sentences, and let each contain an objective 
clause illustrating direct quotation. Change each to the form 
of indirect quotation, and change five of them into interroga- 
tive sentences. 

Ex. — " I have endeavored," said Socrates " throughout life, to do nothing un- 
just •"= Socrates said that he had endeavored, throughout life, to do nothing 
unjust. Did not Socrates say that he had endeavored, etc. 

610. Convert the following objects, ivith their attributes, into 
objective clauses : — 

I thought him honest. I wish you to inform me of the fact. We 
desired her to stay. The general commanded the army to march. The 
ancients believed the earth to be a vast plain. Some suppose the planets 
to be inhabited. The lunatic often imagines himself a king. 

Ex. — I thought that he ivas honest. 

611. Expand the following nouns, with the words belonging 
to them in italics, into objective clauses: — 

I forgot the time of the lecture. Socrates taught the immortality of 
the soul. Do you believe the truth of these reports? Explain the 
cause of the tides. Show me the mode of its operation. We anticipate 
a pleasant day. The officer found the place of his concealment. Did 
you hear of his illness f Who told you of our success ? I wish to go. 
He expects to be appointed. Will you tell us the object of this meet- 
ing f The heathen believe in a plurality of gods. 

612. Write complex sentences, employing the following 
words, and let the two words between the semicolons be the sub- 
jects, the first of the principal clause and the second of the 
subordinate clause : — 

Fox, grapes ; boy, ink ; Solomon, wisdom ; poet, man ; teacher, 
pupils; Washington, nation; Columbus, continent; brother, hand; 
father, son ; George, geography ; general, army. 

Ex. — The fox said that the grapes were sour. 

613. Select ten sentences from your history, or any other 
book, containing objective clauses. 



184 NATURE OF THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 

614. Write a brief account of the discovery of America 
(548. Sug.), then examine your sentences and see how many 
are simple and how many are complex. Remodel any of 
your imperfect sentences. 



SECTION Y. 



SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS THE ADVERBIAL 
ELEMENT. 

Nature of the Adverbial Clause. 

615. A clause added to the predicate to denote some 
circumstance connected with it is an adverbial element of 
the third class. 

Ex. — I was agreeably deceived as I approached the place. 

616. An adverbial clause is introduced by some con- 
junction, or conjunctive adverb, which relates to some 
adverb, expressed or understood, in the principal clause, 
called its correlative. 

Ex. — We must go (thither) whither the master leads. 

(a.) The connective and its correlative are equivalent to two phrases; as, "I 
will go where he lives"=''I will go to the place (there) in which (where) he 
lives." 

617. Adverbial clauses, like their corresponding words 
or phrases, may denote place, time, cause, or manner. 



Model for Analyzing. 

618. Analyze — When the wicked are multiplied, transgression 
increaseth. = S P v 3 . 

It is a complex sentence (why ?). 

Transgression, or S, is the subject of the principal clause. 



CLAUSES DENOTING PLACE. 



185 



Increaseth, P 

The predicate . 



Wicked 

Are multiplied 

When 



is the predicate. 

is limited by " when the wicked are multiplied," 
= v 3 , an adverbial element of the third class, 
denoting time. (See Rule IX.) (333). The com- 
plex predicate = P v 3 is, "increaseth when the 
wicked are multiplied." 

is the subject of the subordinate clause. 

is the predicate. 

is a subordinate connective (conjunctive adverb 
of time), and joins the adverbial clause which it 
introduces to the predicate of the principal clause ; 
according to Rule XVI. (556). It limits " are multi- 
plied" and " increaseth ;" according to Rule IX. 



Clauses Denoting Place. 

619. The three relations of place (322) are indicated by 
whither , whence, and where. 

Ex. — Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 

620. When adverbs of place express comparison, the 
clause represents the second term of the comparison. 

Ex. — The prisoner reached as far as his chain would allow, or, no farther than 
his chain, etc. 

(a.) The principal conjunctive adverbs of place are where, whither, whence, 
wherever, whithersoever ; and the phrases, as far as, as long as, farther than. 



Exercise upon Clauses Denoting Place, 

621. Analyze the following sentences: — 

The soldiers stopped where night overtook them = a S P v 3 . Where 
your treasure is, there will your heart be also. Wheresoever the 
carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered together. I will go whither 
you direct. 

Where'er we tread, 'tis haunted, holy ground. Where true religion 
has prevented one crime, false religions have afforded a pretext for a 
IS* 



186 CLAUSES DENOTING TIME. 

thousand. Where all is mercenary, nothing can be magnanimous. 
Thou knewest that I reap where I sowed not. Whither I go, ye can- 
not come. I travelled where disappointment smiles at hope's career. 
Where there is no law, there is no transgression. 

Where the olive leaves were twinkling in every wind that blew, 
There sat beneath the pleasant shade a damsel of Peru. 

622. Write ten sentences, introducing adverbial clauses 
denoting place. 



Clauses Denoting Time. 

623. Adverbial clauses denoting time are connected 
with their principal clauses by conjunctive adverbs of 
time. 

624-. These adverbial clauses, like adverbs, or adverbial 
phrases of time, answer the questions, When? How long? 
How often f 

(a.) The last of these relations (how often ?) is generally expressed by com- 
parison. " I will go as often as you send for me.''' (620.) 

625. Adverbial clauses denoting time, like phrases, mark 
a specified time, antecedent to, simultaneous with, or subse- 
quent to, the event expressed by the principal verb. 

( before the mail arrived. 
Ex. — Edward was writing < when the mail arrived. 
I after the mail arrived. 

See table, and form a similar one, in which an adverbial clause shall mark the 
specified time. 

626. Clauses, like phrases, may denote & point, a period, 
or frequency of time. 

(a.) The principal conjunctive advei^bs denoting time are token, while, whilst, 
as. before, after, ere, till, until, since, whenever; and the phrases, as long as, 
as soon as, the moment, the instant, no sooner . . . than. 



EXERCISES UPON CLAUSES DENOTING TIME. I8f 



(6.) The following table will show the different relations of these con- 
nectives : — 

{Point . . . = when, as, whenever, as soon as. 
Period . . = while, whilst, as long as. 
Frequency = as often as, as frequently as. 

f Point . . . = before, ere. 
II. Time antecedent J Period . . = till, until. 

(^ Frequency = as often as, as frequently as. 



Point . . . = after. 
III. Time subsequent -l Period .. = since. 



Frequency = as often as, as frequently as. 

(c.) While, whilst, and as long as, denote the duration, till and until, the com- 
mencement, and since, the termination, of a period. 

(d.) In clauses denoting time, there is often an ellipsis of the subject and 
verb ; as, " When reflecting with grief and astonishment at this great change, I 
felt a degree of pain." 



Exercises upon Clauses Denoting Time. 

627. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the con- 
nectives : — 

A dervise was journeying alone in the desert, when two merchants 

ai 

suddenly met him = a S PM-al, When the million applaud you, seri- 
ously ask yourself what harm you have done. When you have nothing 
to say, say nothing. Cromwell followed little events before he ventured 
to govern great ones. The age of miracles is past, while that of pre- 
judice remains. At length the dial instituted a formal inquiry as to 
the cause of the stagnation, when hands, wheels, weights, with one 
voice, protested their innocence. 

And all the Muse's tales seem truly told, 
Till the sense aches with gazing. 

The .maxim that no people ought to be free till they are fit to use 
their freedom is worthy of the fool in the old story, who resolved not 
to go into the water till he had learned to swim. When Greek meets 
Greek, then comes the tug of war. 

628. Write ten complex sentences, introducing the subordi- 
nate clauses, by the connectives mentioned in (626. a). 



188 CLAUSES DENOTING CAUSAL RELATIONS. 

629. Write appropriate clauses, denoting time, to each of 
the following sentences: — 

I saw the smouldering ruins. We heard a distant cry. Will you 
answer my letter? The child may attend school. Migratory birds 
return to the north. You may play. How old were you ? AVe should 
aid our friends. 

630. Write five complex interrogative sentences, and let 
the dependent clause denote time. 

631. Recast your sentences, and choose those forms which 
impress you as the best 



Clauses Denoting Causal Relations. 

632. These subordinate clauses may be considered under 
four divisions, — 

1. Causal, or those which denote a real cause or reason. 

2. Conditional, or those which denote a possible cause or condition. 

3. Final, or those which denote an ultimate cause, end, or motive. 

4. Concessive, or those which denote a cause or reason conceded, 
as opposed to a result. 

(a.) The distinction between cause and reason is this: — 

(1.) Cause denotes the trne ground, namely, that which really produces, or is 
regarded as producing, an effect. 

(2.) Reason denotes the ground, of our knowing an effect ; hence, the former is 
called the real ground, and the latter the logical ground. We give a reason for 
our knowing a fact or a result ; we give the cause of its actual existence. Thus, 
" The wolf died because it was shot;" here the shooting was the real cause. But 
in " It rained last night, because the ground is wet," we assign a reason for our 
knowing the fact of the rain. 

(6.) Condition denotes the possible ground. An effect or a result is not. but 
will be, on condition that something else exist or take place ; and this something 
else may be either a cause or a reason. Thus, " If there is a frost, the leaves will 
wither." 

(c.) Motive denotes the moral ground; it supposes an ulterior object called an 
end to be ideally present, producing an effect upon the will, and causing a choice 



MODES OF EXPRESSING CAUSAL RELATIONS. 189 

or a voluntary act. Thus, " He went to Florida that he might escape the chills 
of winter." Here, the ideal, chills of waiter, acted as a cause of his choice, 
volition, and real action. 

(d.) Concession denotes an adversative ground, it concedes a cause or reason 
against what is affirmed. Thus, '• Though it has rained for two days, the 
fountains are not filled," — we should expect them to be filled, there has been a 
ground for expecting it, but we concede they are not. 



Modes of Expressing Causal Relations. 

638. Causal relations care not properly relations of ideas 
or conceptions expressed by words or phrases, but of judg- 
ments or opinions expressed by propositions. 

(a.) Hence, unlike adjective or ordinary clauses, they modify not so much the 
single word as the entire thought expressed by a proposition. 

684. They are primarily expressed by co-ordinate prop- 
ositions, arranged in what in logic is called the syllogism. 

(a.) The syllogism consists of three principal propositions. The first two are 
called the premises, the last the conclusion. 

Ex. — All men are mortal. = Maj or premise. 
Socrates is a man. = Minor premise. 
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. = Conclusion. 

The conclusion is a deduction from the two premises. In common discourse 
the syllogism is never used; it is found only in treatises on logic, and is the full 
form of expression for causal relations, especially those which express a reason. 

685. In ordinary discourse causal relations are expressed 
by the contracted syllogism. 

Ex. — Socrates is a man ; therefore Socrates is mortal, cr, All men are mortal ; 
therefore Socrates is mortal. 

(a.) The contracted syllogism is called, in logic, the entity rneme. ; that is, the 
syllogism in which one part is held in the mind, or understood. In the original 
co-ordinate relation of these, there were two forms, (1) the illative or deductive, 
introduced by therefore and consequently ; (2) the causative, introduced by for. 

636. The first tendency to depart from the primitive 
expression of this combination of ground and consequence 



190 EXERCISES UPON CAUSAL CLAUSES. 

appears when one of the propositions assumes in language 
the rank of a subordinate clause. 

Ex. — Socrates is mortal because he is a man. The flowers are destroyed 
because there was a frost. 

(a.) In this form appear the various causal relations enumerated above. In 
the tendency to abbreviation, even these forms suffer change, and are contracted 
into the simple proposition. Thus beginning with the syllogism, — 
All metals are fusible; 
Goid is a metal, — 
Therefore, Gold is fusible, 

we pass first to the forms. All metals are fusible, therefore gold is fusible; 
gold is a metal, therefore it is fusible. Sinking one of these propositions to a 
subordinate rank, we have, Gold is fusible because it is a metal; and now, con- 
tracting this subordinate clause, we have the simple sentence, Gold, being a metal, 
is fusible. It is by similar contractions that we have the causal phrases in (504). 
By reversing the steps, we can pass from these back to the syllogism. 

637. The proper connective for the subordinate clause, 
when it expresses the real cause or reason, is because, as, 
since, whereas, inasmuch as. 



Exercises upon Causal Clauses. 

638. Analyze the following sentences, and point out the 

causal clauses : — 

A peace which consults the good of both parties is the firmest, 
because both parties are interested in its preservation. We hate some 
persons, because we do not know them. As retreat was now impossible, 
Colter turned the head of the canoe. As Csesar loved me, I weep for 
him ; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it ; as he was valiant, I honor 
him ; but as he was ambitious, I slew him. I will not call him villain, 
because it would be unparliamentary, since he is a privy councillor. I 
will not call him fool, because he happens to be chancellor of the 
exchequer. 

Since 'tis ask and have, I may — 
Since the others go ashore. 
Come ! a good whole holiday ! 
Leave to go and see my wife, whom I call the belle Aurore. 
That he asked, and that he got— nothing mere. 



CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 191 

639. Write causal clauses to each one of the connectives, 
because, as, since, whereas, inasmuch as. 

640. Change all the examples in (638) to deductive clauses. 
(See 685. a.) 

Ex. — We do not know some persons ; therefore, we hate them. 

641. Take the corresponding exercise (507) in Chapter III., 
and change all the phrases which admit of it into causal 
clauses. 

642. Write clauses which shall give a reason for the follow- 
ing statements : — 

The tides rise. The moon is eclipsed. We left the city. We 
should acquire knowledge. Let us shun the company of the vicious. 
Improve your time. Cultivate agreeable manners. Never reveal 
secrets. We should sympathize with the suffering. Be slow to 
promise. The study of history is all-important. The stars seem 
countless. 

Ex. — The tides rise because the moon attracts the water. 



Conditional Clauses. 

643. A conditional clause is an antecedent to some effect 
or event, but not necessarily its real cause. 

644. Conditional clauses are used to limit the principal 
clause by means of some real or supposed condition. 

645. When the conditional clause denotes something 
actual, or assumed as actual, the tense form of the verb 
indicates its true time. 

Ex. — If it rains, I shall not go. 

646. When the conditional clause denotes something 
supposed or hypothetical, the tense form of the verb does 
not indicate its true time. 



192 EXERCISES UPON CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 

Ex. — If it rain, I shall not go. 

(a.) The past tense represents present time ; the past perfect, past time ; and the 
past of the potential, future time ; as, " I am not going ; but if I were going (now), 
I should ride ;" " I was not going ; but if I had been going (yesterday), I should 
have told you ;" " I shall not go ; but if I should go (hereafter), I should walk." 

(6.) Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the auxiliary ; as, " If he (should) come, 
we will ride into the country." 

647. The principal connective of conditional clauses is 
if. The following, which may be considered as nearly 
equivalent to if, are also used : unless (if not), though, lest, 
except, provided that. 

648. The verb of the conditional clause may have the 
indicative, the potential, or the subjunctive form; that of 
the principal clause is generally either in the indicative 
future or in some tense of the potential. 

649. Conditional clauses may become principal clauses by 
changing the subjunctive to the imperative mode, and using 
and instead of if; as, "If you will give me an axe, I will 
cut this tree"=" Give me an axe, and I will cut this tree." 

(a.) Sometimes the condition is expressed by a question ; as, " Is any among 
you afflicted? let him pray"— "If any (one) among you is afflicted, let him 
pray." 

(6.) By placing the subject after the verb, or between the auxiliary and the 
verb, " if" may be omitted; as, " Were he a more careful man, he would meet 
with better success." 



Exercises upon Conditional Clauses. 

650. Analyze the following complex sentences, and parse 
the connectives : — 

Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. Should it rain to- 
morrow (648), the lecture will be postponed. Were patrons more dis- 
interested, ingratitude would be more rare. If I had any faith in such 
nonsense, I should say the stick was bewitched. We shall be lost, 
unless a vessel comes to our rescue. If we wish to cut glass, we must 



FINAL CLAUSES. 103 



have recourse to the diamond. If there be any thing improper in this 
address, the singularity of your present situation will excuse it. If 
they fall, we fall with them ; if they stand, it will be because we have 
upholden them. 

Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault, 
If memory o'er their tomb no trophies raise. 

051. Write five of the preceding examples, and change the 
mode of the conditional clause to the imperative. 

Ex. — Remove the leaves from, a tree before the fruit is ripe, and the latter 
becomes withered. 

652. Write conditional clauses to limit the following sen- 
tences used as principal clauses : — 

We shall go. You may attend school, The moon will be eclipsed. 
The patient will recover. George will improve. The ice will melt. 
The plants will not thrive. The stream cannot be crossed. The labor 
must be performed. Remorse will ensue. He can perform the task. 
Water will become ice. Fruit will not ripen. 

Ex. — We shall go, if it is pleasant =SP V 3 i 

653. Apply a consequence to the following conditions: — 

If you leave ; should he stay ; had I stopped ; were the measure to 
be adopted; could we ascend the ladder; unless relief come imme- 
diately ; if the day should be unpleasant ; should the wind blow ; 
except he yield to the proposal ; provided that a sufficient number of 
men can be obtained ; if the term closes on Saturday. 

Ex. — If you leave, no one can supply your place.= a S P o" • 



Final Clauses. 

654. Clauses which denote a purpose or motive are 

called final clauses. They are connected by that, that not, 
and lest. 

(a.) Lest denotes a negative purpose, or the avoidance of an evil, and is nearly 
equivalent to that not; as, " Take heed lest ye fall "=" that ye do not fall." 
17 



194 EXERCISES UPON FINAL CLAUSES. 

655. The potential mode, or subjunctive, potential form, 
is always employed in final clauses, and the imperative or 
potential is commonly used in the principal clause. 

656. An adjective clause, introduced by a preposition, 
and having its verb in the potential- mode, generally 
denotes a purpose; as, "We have no other means by which 
we may aid him." 

(a.) Final clauses are often equivalent to an infinitive ; as, " Eat that you may 
live"=" Eat to live." 

(6.) Final clauses generally relate to some correlative phrase in the principal 
clause, such as, " in order," " with the design." 



Exercises upon Final Clauses. 

657. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the con- 
nectives : — 

I have brought a passage, that you may explain it. He visited the 
springs, that he might improve his health. I have been the more 
careful, that I might not be the instrument of his ruin. He sent me a 
history of Rome, that I might examine it. Have respect to mine 
honor, that you may believe. Regulus gladly gave up his life, that he 
might save his country. 

658. Write clauses denoting a purpose or motive to the 

following : — 

We should take exercise. Avoid trees in a thunder-storm. Study. 
Improve your time. Shun bad company. Take heed. Reprove not 
a scorner. Answer not a fool according to his folly. Oblige your 
Triends. He opened the window. He fled his country. 

659. Change the above clauses denoting purpose to infini- 
tives (656. a), 

660. Write sentences in which the following infinitives shall 
denote purpose, and then change them to clauses : — 



EXERCISES UPON CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. 195 

To see his brother; to hear the news; to enjoy the sea-breeze; to 
write a letter ; to educate his children ; to take lessons in music ; to 
catch a robber; to sell his furniture ; to obtain a situation in the bank. 

661.. Write jive complex sentences, each containing an 
adjective clause denoting purpose (656). 



Concessive Clauses. 

662. Concessive clauses are used when we concede 
something which stands as a cause or reason opposed to 
the statement in the principal clause. They are intro- 
duced by though, although, notwithstanding, however. 

Ex. — " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 

(a.) The correlatives of these clauses are yet, still, or nevertheless, placed in 
the principal clause. 

(6.) Whatever, whoever, whichever, and while, often have an adversative signi- 
fication ; as, " Whatever you may say, he persists in doing it." 

663. A concessive clause may be expressed by a com- 
parison of equality. 

Ex. — Poor as he was, he contributed more than any other man= Though he 
was poor, he contributed more than any other man. 

664. Concessive clauses are often equivalent to phrases 
connected by with, without, notwithstanding, despite oj. 

Ex. — With all his faults, he is a useful man= Though he has many faults, he 
is a useful man. 



Exercises upon Concessive Clauses. 
665. Analyze the jollowing sentences : — 

Although the place was unfavorable, nevertheless Csesar determined 
to attack the enemy. However careless he might seem, his fortune 
depended upon the decision. Vigilant as were the watchmen, the 
robbers made frequent depredations. Whoever may oppose, we shall 



196 EXERCISES UPON CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. 

insist upon the adoption of the plan. Fancy enervates, while it 

soothes the heart. 

Nor leave a battle blade undrawn, 
Though every hill a sepulchre should yawn. 

I would not spend another such a night, 
Though 'twere to buy a world of happy days. 

Well, well, Lady Teazle, though my life may be made unhappy by 
your temper, I'll not be ruined by your extravagance. 

666. Write sentences in which the following adjectives, with 
as, shall introduce a concessive clause. Introduce each by 

though. 

Bold, deficient, strong, poor, thoughtless, silent, bright, warm, 
faithful, honest, abrupt, wild, sad, joyous, contented. 

Ex. — Cold as it was, we were compelled to be out through the night = Though 
it was cold, etc. 

667. Expand the following italicized phrases into adversa- 
tive clauses (551. b). 

With all his faults, I love him. He applied for a situation, without 
a recommendation. Notwithstanding the storm, we commenced our 
journey. Despite of opposition, he made his way to distinction. 

Ex. — Though he has many faults, I love him, or S P v 2 = S P v 3 . 

668. Write a sentence having a concessive clause for each 
of the connectives, though, although, notwithstanding, how- 
ever, while, whatever, whoever. 

669. Turn the following phrases into clauses, each having 
a concessive for its connective : — 

In spite of the rain, the company assembled. England, with all thy 
faults, I love thee still. Notwithstanding his efforts, the horse dashed 
over the wall. Without any further introduction, he commenced his 
oration. 



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES DENOTING MANNER. 197 

Adverbial Clauses Denoting Manner. 

670. By adverbial clauses denoting manner, the predi- 
cate of the principal clause may be compared with that of 
the subordinate, so as to show, 1st, a correspondence ; 2d, a 
consequence; or, 3d, equality or inequality in magnitude. 

671. Correspondence is indicated by as, just as, so . . . as, 

when it relates to a verb or adjective, and by such . . . as, 
and same . . . as, when it relates to a noun ; as, " Speak as 
you think;" "These are such books as I have." 

(a.) By an ellipsis of an entire proposition, two subordinate connectives come 
together, the former of which denotes correspondence ; as, " Always act in 
private as if you were seen by others" = " Always act in private as you would 
do if you were seen by others." 

672. Clauses denoting consequence or effect are intro- 
duced by so . . . that, when the consequence relates to a 
verb or adjective, and by such . . . that, when it relates to 
a noun; as, "The traveller was so weary that he fell 
asleep." 

(a.) When the consequence relates to a verb, so that should follow it; when 
it relates to an adjective, so precedes and that follows it; when it relates to a 
noun, such or such a precedes and that follows it. 

673. Comparison of equality is indicated by as ... as; 
as, "George is as tall as his brother'' 1 (is tall). So is 
used instead of the first as after not, in clauses denying 
equality ; as, " George is not so tall as his brother." 

(a.) Proportionate equality, or equality between two predicates which vary in 
intensity, is indicated by the . . . the, the . . . so much, the, with comparatives; 
as, " The colder it is, the better I feel." 

674. Comparison of inequality is denoted by than, more 
. . . than, less . . . than; as, "George is taller than his 
brother" (is tall). 

17* 



198 EXERCISES UPON CLAUSES DENOTING MANNER. 



(a.) Clauses denoting comparison are generally elliptical, and require special 
attention to the part suppressed. 

Exercises upon Clauses Denoting Manner. 

675. Analyze the following sentences, and tell which denote 
correspondence, which consequence, and which equality or 
inequality. 

_ As a bird wandereth from her nest, so is a man that wandereth from 
his place. As the door turneth upon its hinges, so doth the slothful 
man upon his bed. Is gravity always as wise as it appears? The 
science of mathematics performs more than it promises. Is it not 
better to be laughed at than ruined? The more eminent men are 
(673. a.), so much the more condescending they should be to the hum- 
ble. Many men live as though (671. a.) they were born to pleasures. 
As bright a glory from the skies 
Pours down its light around those towers, 
And once again the Greeks arise 
As in their country's noblest hours. 
It cannot lay its hand on these 
No more than it can pluck his brightness from the sun. 

Angelo. How ? bribe me ? 

Isabel. Ay, with such gifts that Heaven shall share with you. 

676. Write clauses denoting correspondence to complete the 
following : — 

As a man thinketh Will you be so good The pupil 

wrote the copy just as The boy sings as The task 

is the same as Speak as Make the mark just as 

677. Write clauses denoting consequence or effect to com- 
plete the following : — 

The day was so stormy The sun is so bright The 

patient had gained so much strength The hours seemed so 

long They gave him so little money We should 

acquire knowledge, so that It is so cold We have 

had so much rain 



ELEMENTS CONTAINING GLAUSES. 199 

678. Write clauses denoting comparison of equality ap- 
plied to the following adjectives : — 

Wise, great, stupid, long, broad, fierce, cool, strong, weak, thin, 
bright, dark, faithful. 

Ex. — "Was Lycurgus as wise as Solon? = S P 2 v 3 . 

679. Write clauses denoting comparison of inequality 
applied to the same. 

Ex. — Solon was wiser than Lycurgus = Lycurgus was not so wise as Solon = 

SPY. 

a. It has now been shown that any of the five elements of a sentence may be 
a single word, a. phrase, or a clause. They may be thus represented: first class, 
a iO P -o 1 ; second class, a 2 S P —02 j third class, a 3 S P -o3i 



SECTION VI 



COMPLEX AND COMPOUND ELEMENTS CONTAINING 
CLAUSES. 

Formation of Complex and Compound Elements. 

680. With simple elements of the first class, the only- 
complex element that can be formed consists of two or 
more single words united, as, "very quickly." But with 
the addition of the phrase, three or four varieties can be 
formed. By uniting the three different classes of ele- 
ments {single words, phrases, clauses) at least nine varieties 
may be formed, as will be seen by the following : 

EXAMPLES. 

Complex elements may be formed, — 
By joining 1 and 1 ; as, very quickly= Vv. 
. By joining 1 and 2; as, desirous of fame = a*0 2 . 
By joining 1 and 3 ; as, a pleasure ivhieh I cannot express = supposing 
pleasure to be the object= a O 1 , 



200 THE THREE CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 

[ By joining 2 and 1 ; as, with great satisfaction =V 2 a 1 . 
Class II. -j By joining 2 and 2; as, in fear of detection =V 2 a 2 . 

By joining 2 and 3; as, from him to whom it is due — o^v 3 . 

{By joining 3 and 1 ; as, if he comes quickly =V a v 1 . 
By joining 3 and 2; as, when we went to Albany=V 3 v 2 - 
By joining 3 and 3 ; as, as I came where he sat—M 3 y-i. 

681. Although the clauses considered in this chapter 
are subordinate to some part of the principal clause, yet 
two or more of them may become co-ordinate with each 
other, and thus form a compound element of the third 
class. 

Ex. — I thought that the substance of the fruit had become part of my own, and 
that I was endowed with the power of transforming bodies. 

682. Either of the principal or any one of the subordi- 
nate elements, when of the third class, may, like the 
single word or phrase, become compound. 

(a.) By adding to the subject or to the predicate any elements of the three 
classes, whether dependent upon or independent of each other, we have the 
forms which enter into the majority of sentences in the English language. 



Exercises upon the three Classes of Elements. 

683. Review the models for analysis of complex and com- 
pound elements in Chap, III., and analyze and symbolize 
the following examples: — 

The light, the celestial vault, the verdure of the earth, the trans- 
parency of the waters, gave animation to my spirits, and conveyed 
pleasures which exceed the powers of expression. Totally occupied 
with this new species of existence, I had already forgot the light* 
though the first part of my being which 1 had recognized. If the 
blessings of our political and social condition have not now been too 
highly estimated, we cannot well overrate the responsibilities which 
they impose upon us. We hold these institutions of government, 
religion, and learning to be transmitted as well as enjoyed. I deem 



THE THREE CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 201 

it my duty, on this occasion, to suggest that the land is not yet wholly 
free from the contamination of a traffic at which every feeling of 
humanity must revolt. 

684. Analyze the following sentences and point out the com- 
pound elements of the third class. 

The model for the first is S P7o 3 +o 3 ). 

I soon perceived that I had the power of losing and of recovering 
them, and that I could, at pleasure, destroy and renew this beautiful 
part of my existence. That their poetry is almost uniformly mournful, 
and that their views of nature were dark and dreary, will be allowed 
by all who admit the authenticity of Ossian. 

When riseth Lacedemon's hardihood, 
When Thebes Epaminondas rears again, 
When Athens' children are with arts endued, 
When Grecian mothers shall give birth to men, — 
Then thou mayst be restored. 

I neither knew what I was, where I was, nor from whence I came. 
Why we are thus detained, or why we receive no intelligence from 
home, is mysterious. 

Amongst that number was an old man who had fallen an early 
victim to adversity, and whose days of imprisonment, reckoned by the 
notches which he had cut on the door of his gloomy cell, expressed the 
annual circuit of more than fifty suns. Bruyere declares that we are 
come into the world too late to produce anything new, that nature 
and life are preoccupied, and that description and sentiment have 
been long since exhausted. We may rather suppose that Nature is 
unlimited in her operations, that she has inexhaustible treasures in 
reserve ; that knowledge will always be progressive, that there are 
innumerable regions of imagination yet unexplored, and that all 
future generations will continue to make discoveries of which we have 
not the least idea. 

685. Write ten sentences, each containing a compound ele- 
ment of the third class. 

686. Analyze the following complex sentences, and point 
out the words, phrases, or clauses of the same name which 



202 ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

are connected with each other, yet belong to the subject or 
predicate : — 

As I darkened the light, he cast his eye toward the- window, that he 
might catch the feeble rays of the moon. When we passed the comers 
of the streets, we were always saluted by some beggars who were 
congregated there. There are moments in the lives of men which, as 
they are seized or neglected, decide their future destiny. Never mind 
the ugly reflection which your glass may give you ; that mirror has no 
heart. If there be, within the extent of our knowledge or influence, 
any participation in the traffic, let us pledge ourselves here, upon the 
Kock of Plymouth, to extirpate and destroy it. 

I chatter, chatter, as I flow 

To join the shining river; 
For men may come and men may go, 

But I go on for ever. 

As fade the rainbow hues of day, 
Earth's gorgeous pageants pass away. 

687. Take the unlimited propositions in (58), page 28, and 
expand them as much as possible by additions to the subject 
and predicate. 



SECTION VII. 
CONTRACTED COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

Abridged Propositions. 

688. A complex sentence differs from a simple sentence 
only in the expanded state of some one or more of its 
elements. Hence, 

689. A complex sentence may be reduced to a simple 
one by abridging its subordinate clause. 



ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 203 

Ex. — A man who is deceitful, can never be trusted = A deceitful man can 
never be trusted. 

(a.) The abridged form partakes of the nature of the clause from which it is 
derived ; that is, it is either substantive, adjective, or adverbial. 

(6.) In abridging a proposition, the change is produced chiefly upon its 
essential parts, its subordinate elements being joined to the abridged form with- 
out alteration. 

690. The general rule for abridging a subordinate 
clause is to remove the connective, and change the predi- 
cate to a participle or an infinitive. 

Ex. — When shame is lost, all virtue is lost.— Shame being lost, all virtue is 
lost. We told him that he must leave— We told him to leave. 

(a.) The connective is retained in certain substantive clauses, when the predi- 
cate is in the potential mode, and the subject is the same as that of the principal 
verb. In such cases the predicate is changed to the infinitive and the subject 
dropped ; as, " I knew not what I should do = xohat to do." In like manner, we 
have, "whom to send;" ''where to go;" "when to stop;" "how to do it," etc. 

(6.) A similar change may take place in such adjective clauses as are 
mentioned in (656) ; as, " Give me a knife with vohich I may cut this string = with 
which to cut this string = to cut this siring with." 

By changing the predicate to a participle or an infinitive, the assertion is 
destroyed ; the attribute, either with or without the participle of the copula 
(89. 1, 2), becomes an assumed property, or is used substantively. 

691. The following are the rules for the subject in an 

abridged proposition : — 

1. When the subject of the subordinate clause is the same as the 
subject or object of the principal clause, it is omitted; as, " I wish that 
I might go = to go." 

2. When it is different from the subject or object of the principal 
clause, it must be retained, and may appear either in the nominative, 
possessive, or objective case. 

3. When it is in the nominative case, it is put absolute with the 
participle. " When shame is lost (=shame being lost), all virtue is lost." 

4. When it is in the possessive case, it becomes wholly subordinate 
to the abridged predicate used as a noun ; as, " I was not aware that 
he was going = of his going." 



204 ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

5. When it is in the objective case, it is followed by the infinitive of 
the abridged predicate ; as, " I told him that he must go = him to go." 

692. The following are the rules for the predicate : — ■ 

1. The abridged predicate may have two constructions, that of an 
attributive or that of a substantive; as, "The man who perseveres^ 
The persevering man;" "lam not sure that he will be present = of his 
being present." 

2. When the attribute of the predicate is an adjective or a noun, the 
participle or infinitive of the copula must be joined to it to give the 
entire predicate a verbal form; as, "to be industrious;" "being 
merchants." 

3. When the attribute of the predicate is a noun, it must be in the 
objective case after the participle or the infinitive of the copula, when 
the subject is changed to the objective (691. 5) ; as, " I believed that it 
was he = it to be him." 

4. It remains unchanged in the nominative, after the participle of 
the copula, when the subject is in the nominative ; as, " As a youth 
was their leader, what could they do? = A youth being their leader," 
etc. 

5. It remains unchanged in the nominative, when, with the parti- 
ciple of the copula, the entire predicate becomes a sort of verbal noun, 
limited by the possessive case of the subject; as, "That he was a 
foreigner prevented his election = His being a foreigner prevented his 
election." 

(a.) That " foreigner," or any other word similarly used, is in the nominative 
case, will appear from the following considerations : — 

1. It was in the nominative case before the clause was abridged. 

2. It cannot be in the possessive case after the change, though it relates to the 
same person as "his," for it neither has the sign of possession nor does it denote 
possession. Besides, by a universal law of language, a dependent or limiting 
word, like " his," has no control over the construction of the words on which it 
depends. 

3. It cannot be in the objective case, for it does not depend upon any word 
(such as a preposition or verb) which requires it to be in that case, nor has any 
thing taken place in the process of abridgment, as in (692. 3), to cause any 
change in its case. Hence, as it was in the nominative case before the change, 



CLASSES OF ABRIDGED EXPRESSIONS. 205 

it must still remain in that case, unless its position in the sentence should require 
a change. 

4. But no position which it may take in being incorporated as a part of 
the principal clause can cause a change of case. A subordinate clause may 
take any position in the sentence, hence its abridged form may take the same. 
Subordinate clauses have a twofold construction, one as a whole and one as 
composed of parts; so have their abridged forms. Thus, in the following 
examples, the abridged forms, as a whole, perform precisely the same offices as 
the complete forms. " That he was a foreigner (= his being a foreigner) prevented 
his election." " I knew that he was a foreigner"—' I knew his being, or of his 
being a foreigner." " The fact that he ivas a foreigner (= of his being a foreigner) 
was undeniable." " When he was first called a foreigner (= on his being first called 
a foreigner) his anger was excited." 

In all these abridged forms, neither " foreigner " nor any other word, but 
the whole combination, takes the place of its corresponding clause. In the 
first example the combination, especially " being a foreigner," is in the nomi- 
native case, but that fact does not require the single word "foreigner" to be 
in that case. In the other examples the same form is in the objective case, but 
the word "foreigner" is not hence in the objective any more in the abridged 
than in the complete form. Therefore, though the whole combination may be 
either in the nominative or objective case, each word, taken separately, may 
have its own construction ; and since " foreigner " was in the nominative (pred. 
nom.) originally, and nothing has taken place to change its case, it must still 
remain as the predicate-nominative of an abridged proposition. Hence, in 
abridging the following proposition, " I was not aware that it was he," we should 
say, " of its being he," not " his" nor "him." 



Classes of Abridged Expressions. 

693. All abridged constructions may be reduced to four 
classes, the participial construction, the nominative absolute, 
the infinitive, and the participial noun. In the first two 
the old predicate is used as attributive, in the last two 
as substantive (690.). 

694. In the participial construction the subject is omitted 
(691. 1), and the attribute of the predicate is joined as an 
adjective to some noun or pronoun in the principal clause. 

Hence, 

is 



206 CLASSES OF ABRIDGED EXPRESSIONS. 

695. The participial construction is most commonly 
employed in reducing adjective clauses. 

Ex. — The culprit who was convicted oj stealing (= convicted of stealing) was sent 
to the penitentiary. 

696. Adjective clauses are often reduced by changing 
the predicate into a noun joined to the limited noun by 
"of." 

Ex. — A man who is generous will gain friends = A man of generosity will gain 
friends. 

697. The abridged predicate, whether in the form of 
the participle or infinitive, may receive the same additions 
as it would receive in the unchanged form. 

Ex. — When he came into the city = coming into the city ; to come into the city, 

(a.) The participle may be used wholly as an adjective, and be placed before 
the noun; as, "The man who labors"=" The laboring man ;" or it may retain 
some of the characteristics of the clause from which it is derived, and be placed 
after the noun; as, " Those who live upon the sea-shore"—' Those living upon the 
■ sea-shore." 

698. The participial construction may be employed to 
abridge adverbial clauses, when it can be used to limit a 
noun, and at the same time denote some circumstance of 
the principal verb. 

Ex. — Because he ivas unable to persuade the multitude, he left in disgust = 
Being unable, or unable to persuade, etc. He fell, clinging to the branches. 

699. The nominative absolute is employed when the 
subject is not omitted (691. 3), and the attribute is used as 
an adjective agreeing with it. 

Ex. — Jesus conveyed himself away, a multitude being in that place. 

700. This construction is employed chiefly in abridging 
adverbial clauses denoting time, cause, or accompanying 
action. 



EXERCISES UPON CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 207 

701. The infinitive is employed chiefly to abridge sub- 
stantive clauses introduced by "that." 

Ex. — That one should steal is base = For one to steal is base. 

702. The infinitive is employed to abridge adverbial 
clauses denoting a purpose. 

Ex. — He went that he might see = to see. 

(a.) When the subject of the final clause (654) is retained (690. b), it is put in 
the objective case after "for;" as, "I have brought a book for you to read." 
"For" governs not " you " alone, but "you to read," in the same manner as 
some transitive verbs govern a double object. 

(6.) Formerly, "for" was employed to govern the infinitive of purpose when 
used without its subject; as, " What went ye out for to see?" 

703. Substantive clauses of an interrogative nature (566) 
are generally abridged by employing some noun which 
shall express the general idea of the clause. 

Ex. — I know not where he is concealed = I know not the place of his 
concealment. 

704. The participial noun is employed to abridge both 
substantive and adverbial clauses. In the latter case it 
generally follows a preposition. 

Ex. — When we arrived at the pier, all was commotion = On our arriving at 
the pier, all was commotion. 



Exercises upon Contracted Sentences. 

705. Abridge the subordinate clauses in the following 
sentences by employing the participial construction or the 
nominative absolute, and explain the changes : — 

When Elizabeth was queen, Bacon was lord chancellor. A necessi- 
tous man who gives costly dinners pays large sums to be laughed at. 
Dr. Franklin, who was the projector of many useful institutions, was 
bred a printer. Honors which are bestowed upon the illustrious dead 
have in them no admixture of envy. As we were passing throiLgh 
the straits, we were detained by a dense fog. Because some trutlis are 
difficult of comprehension, the weak reject them. 



208 EXERCISES UPON CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 

706. Expand the following abridged forms into clauses, 
and explain the changes : — 

Privileged individuals, surrounded by parasites, sycophants and 
deceivers, too often become the willing victims of self-delusion. Un- 
delighted amidst all delight, and joyless amidst all enjoyment, they 
eventually receive the full measure of the punishment of their folly, 
their profligacy, or their vice. Analogy being a poiverful weapon, we 
should be extremely cautious in using it. 

707. Analyze and explain the following sentences accord- 
ing to the previous principles : — 

The atrocious crime of being a young man I shall neither attempt 
to palliate nor deny. Sprung from a line of kings, a throne is my natu- 
ral seat. Having decided what was to be done, he did that with might 
and main. After performing these good offices, the bright stranger 
fluttered sportively over the children's heads. Even in the earth's 
best and brightest aspect, Hope shows it to be only the shadow of 
an infinite bliss hereafter. 

Charging an army while 

All the world wondered ; 
Plunged in the battery smoke, 
Right through the line they broke : 

Cossack and Eussian 
Reeled from the sabre-stroke, 

Shattered and sundered. 
Then they rode back ; but not — 

Not the six hundred. 

708. Expand the above abridged expressions to complete 



709. Reduce the following miscellaneous complex sentences 
by abridging the subordinate clauses : — 

The belief that there is a plurality of gods is inconsistent with 
reason. Nothing more completely baffles one who is full of trick and 
duplicity himself than straightforward, simple integrity in another. 
Johnson declared that wit consists in finding out resemblances. 



CAUTIONS AND SPECIAL DIRECTIONS. 209 

710. Combine the following simple sentences, so as to make 
one complex sentence out of the first and second, another out 
of the third and fourth, and so on; then abridge the subordi- 
nate clause. 

We left. The sun set. A sudden noise alarmed us. We were 
sitting under a tree. He will retire from business. He has accumu- 
lated a fortune. He means well. He makes many blunders. The 
peaches fall to the ground. Charles shakes the tree. He will spend 
four years in the country. He will attend to agricultural pursuits. 

Ex. — We left ivhen the sun set = at sunset. 



Cautions and Special Directions. 

711. Bear in mind that in the subordinate clauses, instead 
of a conception or idea, some thought, opinion, truth, or 

judgment is taken as a part of the speaker's thought, and 
that it must first be regarded as a whole, in order to 
determine its general effect and its classification as a part 
of speech. 

712. Bear in mind also that it takes as its exponent 
and introductory word the subordinate connective ; this 
shades its meaning and determines its grammatical cha- 
racter ; that is, it denotes time, place, cause, or manner in 
accordance with the significance of the exponent. 

713. When used restrjctively, its place in the sentence is 
in immediate connection with the limited word ; otherwise 
it should take that position which will produce the best 
effect. 

714. As a general rule, it should not be pointed off by 
the comma when used restrictively ; otherwise it should be 
separated by the comma. 

18* 



210 CAUTIONS AND SPECIAL DIRECTIONS. 

715. It should be employed instead of the equivalent 
phrase or word where an element is to receive emphasis, 
fulness, and greater formality of expression. Thus, when 
we say, " Skilful men were chosen," we give a moderate 
prominence to the idea of skill; but when we say, "Men 
who were noted for their skill were chosen," we render 
the idea of skill specially emphatic. 

716. The abridged form for the subordinate clause (690) 
often secures brevity, perspicuity, and unity, and is then to 
be preferred to the full form. It should, however, be 
avoided, — 

1. Whenever it observes the thought or gives rise to an awkward 
combination. 

Ex. — I thought him to be guilty. I suspected him to have done it. 

2. Whenever it leaves the participle to be attributed to the wrong 
person or thing. 

Ex. — Rowing against wind and tide, the boat sprang a leak. Here rowing 
is attributed to boat; it should be, While we were rowing, etc. 

3. Whenever it materially changes the meaning of the expression. 

Ex. — We found that untutored men could help us, is by no means equiva- 
lent to, We found untutored men to help us. Compare, " We had nothing that 
we could eat" with " We had nothing to eat." 

717. The participial construction (694), when referring to 
the subject, often affords an elegant introduction to a 
sentence. 

Ex. — Aspiring to be angels, men rebel. [Being] A professed Catholic, he 
imprisoned the pope. 

''Strained to the root, the stooping forest pours 
A rustling shower of yet untimely leaves." 

718. As the connective introduces the subordinate 
clause, and gives special direction to its meaning, much 
depends upon the right choice of connectives. 



CAUTIONS AND SPECIAL DIRECTIONS. 211 

(a.) In adjective clauses, who is used to refer to persons, what and which to 
things, that to both persons and things. That is to be preferred to who or which 
after superlatives, and when the antecedent is compound and stands for persons 
and things; as, " He was the strongest man that could be secured;" " The man 
and dog that passed by." 

(6.) The place of the connective is at the head of the clause, even though its 
grammatical construction would place it elsewhere. Thus, " The man whom I 
saw," not, " The man I saw whom." To this rule there seems to be an exception 
when the relative is governed by a preposition ; " The man to whom he gave the 
money," not " The man whom he gave the money to." Yet the preposition must 
be placed at the end of the clause when that is used ; " This is the strongest 
passage that he referred to." 

(c.) The connective should be, — 

1. Inserted, when the sense would be obscured without it, or when established 
usage requires it. Thus, " He is still in the situation ( ) you saw him." 
Insert in which. 

2. Omitted, in direct quotations, and in certain inverted constructions, but 
rarely in co-ordinate constructions (402). Thus, " He declared, We can never 
submit to such arrogance." " Should the day be pleasant, I shall leave home." 

3. Repeated, without change of form in co-ordinate constructions. Thus, 
" Blair incorrectly says, ' The remaining parts of speech ivhich are called the 
indeclinable parts, or that (which) admit of no variation, will not detain us 
long.' 

719. When the connection is strengthened by a correla- 
tive, care should be taken both as to choice and place of 
the correlative. 

Say, He was so notorious a cheat that he could not be trusted ; not, He was 
such a notorious cheat that he, etc. 



CHAPTEE V. 

(COMPOUND SENTENCES.) 

CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES. 

Bank of the Combined Clauses. 

720. A compound sentence is formed by uniting two or 
more principal clauses. 

Ex. — A wise son maketh a glad father ; but a foolish son is the heaviness of 
his mother. 

721. The clauses which are thus united are co-ordinate 

with each other. 

(a.) A compound sentence is formed by uniting two similar simple sentences, 
just as a compound element is formed by uniting two similar simple elements. 

(6.) A compound sentence differs from a complex precisely as a compound ele- 
ment differs from a complex. In a complex sentence one clause enters in as a 
constituent element of the other, either as its subject, attribute, object, modifier, 
etc. ; but in a compound sentence one clause is in no way a part of the other. It 
is composed of two distinct and independent parts. A compound sentence may 
be distinguished from a complex by the connectives used. 

(c.) All co-ordinate conjunctions are used primarily to connect clauses; but 
when the clauses have some part in common, that part is generally inserted but 
once, and the conjunction is used to connect only the other parts; as, "Some 
men sin frequently, and some men sin presumptuously " = " So me men sin fre- 
quently and presumptuously." 

Classes of Co-ordinate Clauses. 

722. Co-ordinate clauses may be divided into classes, 
according to the nature of the connective, namely, copu- 
lative, adversative, alternative, and causal. 

212 



SIMPLE AND EMPHATIC COMBINATION. 213 

723. The co-ordinate parts of a compound sentence may 
be either simple or complex sentences. 

Ex. — Give me a book, and I will give you a slate. The miser has lived poor, 
that he may die rich ; and if the prodigal quits life in debt to others, the miser 
quits it still deeper in debt to himself. 



SECTION I. 
COPULATIVE CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES. 

Simple and Emphatic Combination. 

724. When one clause is so united to another as to 
express an additional thought, and thereby give a greater 
extent to its meaning, it is called copulative. 

Ex. — Fingal bade his sails to rise, and the winds came rustling from their 
hills. 

725. When the copulative clause denotes addition with- 
out emphasis or modification, the simple conjunction and 
is used. 

726. If we wish to awaken an expectation of some 
additional thought, and thereby introduce it with emphasis, 
the conjunction has a correlative placed in the first clause. 

Ex. — Not only did the wind blow most fiercely, bat the rain fell in torrents. 

(a.) The co-ordinate conjunctions, with their correlatives, are both . . . and; as 
well . . . as; not only . . . but, but also, but likewise. These correlatives are most 
commonly used to connect co-ordinate parts of the same clause ; as, " He was 
both virtuous and wise "=wo£ only virtuous, but wise. 

727. It is often necessary to associate with "and " some 
other word, which shall give a shade of meaning to the 
added clause not expressed by the principal conjunction. 



214 EXERCISES AND MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 



Ex. — Susan is learning music, and, besides, she attends to drawing. 

(a.) These associate or auxiliary connectives are so, also, likewise, too, which 
denote resemblance, and give additional force to the, meaning of the second 
clause ; besides, moreover, and now, which are often used in argument, to enforce 
an additional objection ; even, which gives peculiar force by expressing something 
unusual or beyond expectation. 

728. When the principal conjunction is understood, the 
auxiliary remains as the only connective, giving its pecu- 
liar force to the co-ordinate clause. 

Ex. — Demosthenes was a distinguished orator, [and] Cicero was also an emi- 
nent orator. 

(a.) These connectives partake of the nature of adverbs, and, unlike the princi- 
pal conjunction, may be placed within the second clause. 



Exercises and Model for Analysis. 

729. Analyze — Caesar has refused his consent, and there remains 

no hope of my speedy restoration-^ P 2 + a 2 S Pi 

It is a compound sentence, because it contains two similar clauses 
(both principal). 

Csesar has refused his consent is the first clause. 

There remains no hope, etc., is the second clause. It is a copulative 
clause, co-ordinate with the first, and is con- 
nected with it by " and," which joins the two 
clauses as elements of a compound sentence. 

And is a co-ordinate conjunction, and is used 

simply to combine the two clauses ; according 
to Rule XII. (385). 

730. Analyze the following sentences, and tell whether the 
second clause expresses addition simply, addition with empha- 
sis (726), or addition modified by some associated particle (727). 

This part of knowledge has been growing, and it will continue to 
grow till the subject be exhausted. I conceived a great regard for 
him, and I could not but mourn for the loss he had sustained. The 
more sleek the prey, the greater the temptation; and no wolf will 



SIMPLE AND MODIFIED COMBINATION. 215 

leave a sheep to dine upon a porcupine. Not only am I instructed by 
this exercise, but I am also invigorated. Religion, as well as its 
votaries, must have a body as well as a soul. I hate a fellow whom 
pride or cowardice or laziness drives into a corner, and who does 
nothing when he is there but sit and growl. Recollect that trifles 
make perfection, and that perfection is no trifle. 

The king has come to marshal us, in all his armor drest, 

And he has bound a snow-white plume upon his gallant crest. 

He looked upon his people, and a tear was in his eye, 

He looked upon the traitors, and his glance was proud and high. 



SECTION II. 

ADVERSATIVE CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES. 

Simple and Modified Combination. 

731. An adversative co-ordinate clause is one which 
stands opposed to, or contrasted with, the preceding 
clause ; yet both are so united as to form one compound 
sentence. 

732. The simple adversative conjunction is but; as, 
" We esteem most things ' according to their intrinsic 
merit, but it is strange that man should be an exception." 

733. When we wish to represent the first clause as a 
concession, we place near the beginning of it the correlative 
indeed, which points forward to but as the connective of 
something opposed to the admission ; as, " I did, indeed, 
grant his request; but I took him to be a gentleman." 

(a.) The following correlatives are sometimes used to connect adversative 
clauses: on the one hand . . . , on the other ; at one time . . . , at another; now 
.... then. 

734. With but are often associated other words in the 



^16 SIMPLE AND EMPHATIC CLAUSES. 

same clause, which become the sole connective when the 
principal connective is understood. 

(a.) These are yet, still, however, nevertheless, now, and many of those mentioned 
in (726. a). 

Exercise on Adversative Combination. 

735. Analyze the following sentences, pointing out the same 
distinctions as in the preceding exercise : — 

We submit to the society of those that can inform us, but we seek 
the society of those we can inform. Tiger-hunting is very fine 
amusement, so long as we hunt the tiger ; but it is rather awkward, 
when the tiger takes it into his head to hunt us. They have indeed 
honored them with their praise, but they have disgraced them with 
their pity. Some men know but little of their profession, but yet they 
often succeed in life better than those whose attainments they can 
never reach. Straws swim upon the surface, but pearls lie upon the 
bottom. A clownish air is but a small defect ; still (734), it is enough 
to make a man disagreeable. The locusts have no king, yet go they 
forth all of them by bands. I am a statesman, but I am also a man. 
Few were his words of rebuke, but deep in the hearts of his people 
sank they, and sobs of contrition succeeded that passionate outbreak. 
He who speaks honestly cares not, needs not care, though his words 
be preserved to remotest time. 

736. Select or write sentences combined adversatively. 



SECTION III. 
ALTERNATIVE CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES. 

Simple and Emphatic Clauses. 

737. Alternative clauses are such as offer or deny a 
choice between two propositions. 

Ex. — We must conquer, or our liberties are lost. 



EXERCISES UPON ALTERNATIVE CLAUSES. 217 

738. The simple conjunctions used to connect such 
clauses, are or nor (=not or), neither (=not either). 

739. The alternative is made emphatic by placing the 
correlatives either or neither in the first clause. 

Ex. — I shall neither go myself nor shall I send any one. 

(a.) Neither . . . nor, either . . . or, more commonly show an alternative 
between two elements of the same clause : as, " He was neither wise nor careful ;" 
" Either George or his brother will come." 

740. The connectives otherwise and else are often asso- 
ciated with or, and may represent it when understood. 

Ex. — Learn your lesson ; otherwise you must lose your rank. 

Exercises upon Alternative Clauses. 

741. Analyze the following sentences as in the two preceding 

exercises : — - 

A jest is not an argument, nor is a loud laugh a demonstration. I 
neither learned wisdom, nor have I a knowledge of the holy. He 
either left the key in the door, [or] else the robber had a false key. 
Christianity must be the true religion, otherwise all the religions in 
the world are but fables. 

For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn, 

Or busy housewife ply her evening care ; 
No children run to lisp their sire's return, 

Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share. 
Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 

Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death? 
I have none, else would I give it. He is either sick or fatigued. I 
knew neither what I was, where I was, nor from whence I came. 

742. Add either copidative, adversative, or alternative 
clauses to each of the following simple sentences: — 

We must conquer. The debt must be paid. The child will be 
relieved soon. He has returned. The lecture has either been very 
long. He has not the strength to accomplish the work. We must 
retreat. 

19 



SECTION IV. 

CAUSAL CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES. 

Classes of Causal Clauses. 

743. Causal clauses are sometimes co-ordinate and some- 
times subordinate. 

(a.) It is not always easy to determine the rank of these clauses, especially in 
the case of clauses introduced by for and because. The clause which assigns the 
cause or the reason seems, when considered grammatically, to form an organic 
part of the sentence, and answers the question, why ? with respect to the princi- 
pal clause. Thus, " Freely we serve (why ?), because we freely love." Because, 
in this example, joins the clauses more closely and emphatically than for would 
do, and assigns a cause. For assigns treason, seldom if ever a cause; the union 
is less emphatic, and the clauses are, as a general rule, grammatically inde- 
pendent of each other; both express a thought of the speaker, and the clauses 
are sometimes separated by a comma, more frequently by a semicolon or a colon, 
and not unfrequently by a period. Thus, " Oh, give thanks unto the God of 
heaven ; for his mercy endureth for ever." In the demonstrations of propo- 
sitions in geometry, it is very common to begin the sentence, and even the para- 
graph, containing the proof with for. Thus, Davies' Legendre, p. 33 : " Let A be 
a given point, and AB a perpendicular to BE; there can no other perpendicular 
to BE be drawn from A. For, suppose a second perpendicular AC to be 
drawn." 

It is plain that in this and various other uses of for it connects a co-ordinate 
proposition which assigns a reason. 

744. Co-ordinate causal clauses are of two kinds : — 

1. Clauses assigning a reason. 

2. Clauses expressing a deduction. 

(a.) The entire sentence in the first case is called a causative sentence; in the 
second, an illative. The connective employed in the causative is chiefly for (—.for 
why). By some because (= by cause) is regarded as a co-ordinate conjunction ; it 
seems better, however, to regard the closer connection of the conjunction as 
subordinate. 

745. In causative sentences a consequence or a conclusion 
is stated, and this is sustained by giving a reason. 

218 



EXERCISES UPON CAUSAL CLAUSES. 219 

Ex. — Employ the present wisely, for the future is uncertain. 
(a.) For causative complex sentences see (636). 

746.. In illative sentences the second clause is a conse- 
quence or a conclusion drawn from the first. 

Ex. — Two triangles have their sides respectively equal, therefore they coincide 
throughout. 

(a.) The conjunctions employed in illative sentences are, therefore (=for there), 
wherefore (= for where), hence, consequently , then ; and although sufficient in them- 
selves to show the connection of the clauses, they are often associated with the 
co-ordinate conjunction and or but; as, and therefore, but then. 

747. Illative sentences are readily converted into causa- 
tive. 

Ex. — The two triangles coincide throughout, for they have their sides 
respectively equal = The two triangles have their sides respectively equal ; 
theref jre they coincide throughout. 



Exercises upon Causal Clauses. 

748. Analyze the following sentences, point out and dis- 
tinguish the illative and the causative sentences : — 

Enoch walked with God; and he was not, for God took him. Take 
additional clothing, for the air is very cold. The soil is very rich; 
therefore the grass is luxuriant. He blushes ; therefore he is guilty. 
The fraction f is equal to £ ; for it contains half the number of parts, 
but each has twice the size of these. The leaves are withered ; there- 
fore there was a frost last night. There will be an eclipse this month, 
for the sun is passing the moon's node. The three sides of this figure 
are equal ; consequently it is an equilateral triangle. 

749. Turn any of the causatives above, into illative, and the 
illatives into causative. 

750. Turn any of the above into simple sentences. 

751. Write any number of reasons why the people of this 
country should be educated. 



SECTION V. 

CO-ORDINATION IN GENERAL. 

Higher Forms of Co-ordination. 

752. The highest possible combination which can take 
place in a sentence is that in which two or more simple or 
complex sentences unite co-ordinately and form one com- 
pound sentence. 

Ex. — The grave opens to receive me, and I sink into its bosom. 
She loved me for the dangers I had passed, 
And I loved her that she did pity them. 

Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than 
let the nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish ; 
and the war came. 

753. The next step in language is to ascend from the 
complete sentence to the paragraph. 

(a.) The paragraph may consist of one sentence, but it is usually made up of 
several sentences bound together only by a connection in the thought, all con- 
tributing to one higher thought embodied in a simple succession of sentences. It 
was once represented by a character ( ^ ) written in the margin ; hence the name 
(para-graphein = to write beside). It is now represented by a break in the lines 
and an indentation of the first word. 

754. Analyze the sentences in the following paragraph, 
taken from Ware's Zenobia: — 

I am charged with pride and ambition. The charge is true, and I 
glory in its truth. Who ever achieved anything great in letters, arts, 
or arms who was not ambitious ? Caesar was not more ambitious than 
Cicero. It was but in another way. Let the ambition be a noble one, 
and who shall blame it ? I confess I did once aspire to be queen, not . 
only of Palmyra, but of the East. That I am. I now aspire to remain 
so. Is it not an honorable ambition ? Does it not become a descend- 
ant of the Ptolemies and of Cleopatra ? 
220 



CONTRACTION BY ELLIPSIS. 221 

755. By similar steps the process of co-ordination rises 
from paragraph to section, from section to chapter, and 
from chapter to the one thought which is the theme of the 
discourse. 

(a.) It is thus that the process of synthesis carries us to the point where the 
process of analysis (4) began. 



Co-ordination admits of Contraction by Ellipsis. 

A. In the members of the same sentence. 

756. When the members of a co-ordinate construction 
have a common part, that part, except where great emphasis 
is required, should be taken but once. 

Ex. — Talent is serious, [talent is] sober, [talent is] grave, and [talent is] 
respectable ; tact is all that, and [tact is] more too. As an example of emphatic 
repetition ; " Wit is dangerous ; eloquence is dangerous ; a talent for observation 
is dangerous." 

(a.) This is properly contraction by ellipsis and not by change of construction, 
as in case of complex sentences. When a subordinate clause is abridged, a com- 
plete change of form takes place ; whereas, in this case we have only to supply 
the common part which is obviously kept in mind (understood), in order to 
restore the full construction. Hence the. difference between supplying words to 
fill out an ellipsis, and making a new construction. 

(b.) Contraction by ellipsis sometimes takes place in subordinate clauses. Thus, 
in clauses denoting comparison, we have ellipsis: "My brother is older than I 
[am old], but I am stronger than he [is strong]." So when the mind would 
readily supply the omission ; as, " While [I was] sitting at the table, I heard the 
rattling of wheels." 

(c.) On the contrary, contraction by reconstruction not unfrequently takes 
place in co-ordinate expressions, especially when the two propositions refer to 
coincident time. Thus, The gate was opened, and we passed along = The gate 
being opened, we passed along. The supper was ready, and we sat down = The 
supper being ready, we sat down. So we may give an agreeable change to two 
predicates; as, "He laid down the package and ran away = Laying down the 
package, he ran away." Some constructions are made co-ordinate by an idiom 
perhaps allowable in conversation, but to be avoided in writing; as, " He went 
and told the teacher." " He told the teacher, or went to tell the teacher." I wish 
you would come and see me = come to see me. 
19* 



222 CONTRACTION BY ELLIPSIS. 

757. A sentence having one of its parts compound is a 
contracted or a partial compound. 

B. In the responsive sentence. 

758. Interrogative and responsive sentences are gram- 
matically co-ordinate, and are closely allied to each other, 
yet without a connective. 

Ex. — Have you read the magazine ? Yes = I have read the magazine. 

(a.) Though they have no conjunction to show their union, yet they are far 
more closely related than ordinary sentences which follow one another by a 
simple succession. The external signs of their relation are often more marked 
than if they were bound together by conjunctions. 

759. The interrogative asks and the responsive answers 
a question. 

Ex. — Wh ere does the judge reside? In Washington^ The judge resides in 
Washington. 

760. Interrogative sentences are, — 

1. Direct, when they require as answer the repetition of the whole 
interrogative in the declarative form, or its equivalent, yes or no. 

Ex. — Are you going? Yes = I am going. 

2. Indirect, when they require as answer some specific part of the 
interrogative, the remaining parts being understood as a corresponding 
declarative sentence. 

Ex. — Who came? The chancellor. When did he arrive? At noon. Where 
does he stay? At the hotel. The chancellor [came]. [He arrived] at noon. 
[He stays] at the hotel. 

(a.) The two are distinguished by the tone The former usually receives the 
rising inflection at the end, the latter the falling. They may always be known 
by the introductory word. 

701. Direct interrogates are introduced by the verb 
or its auxiliary ; indirect, by some interrogative word. 

Ex. — Does he remain ? Yes. Who opened the door ? James. 

(a.) The two classes are equally well distinguished by the responsives. The 
answer to the direct is yes or no — mere symbols for the declarative form of the 
entire interrogative. The answer to the indirect is that part of the declarative 



CONTRACTION BY ELLIPSIS. 223 

form to which the interrogative word refers ; as, " Where did you lay the paper ?" 
Upon the table = I laid the paper upon the table. 

(6 ) The responsive, as expressed, is contracted, and appears fragmentary , but 
is always to be made complete by supplying the necessary ellipsis. 

762. To inquire for any of the elements of a sentence, 
there must be interrogative words of the nature of, — 

1. A substantive in any of its relations. 

Ex.— Who? Which? What? To, for, at, etc. whom ? or which? 

2. An adjective in any of its relations. 

Ex. — What kind? What description of (person or thing)? How many? 

3. An adverb in any relation of place, time, cause, manner. 

Ex.— W7iere? When? Why? How? 

(a.) Hence, interrogates are divided into three classes, namely, substantive > 
adjective, and adverbial. 

Ex.— Substantive. Who? Whose? Which? What? 

Adjective. What kind? How many? 

Adverbial. Where? Whether? Whence? When? How long? 
How often? Why? Wherefore? How? How much? and the various 
phrases in xohat? by whom? etc., etc. 

763. In constructing a responsive sentence, the follow- 
ing rule should be observed : — 

The answering substantive in the responsive must 
he in the same case as the interrogative. 

Ex. — Who is there? /, not me. Whose book have you? John's. Whom 
did you see ? David, him. 

(a.) In general, the character and construction of the interrogative determines 
the character and construction of the corresponding element in the responsive. 

764. Interrogative sentences may be quoted either 
directly or indirectly. 

Ex. — He asked. How can I do this ? He asked how he could do this. 

(a.) When quoted directly, they maintain the distinctive characteristics of an 
interrogative sentence, and retain the interrogation point, but when quoted 
indirectly they lose these characteristics, become subordinate clauses, the inter- 
rogative word being turned into a connective, and the interrogation point into a 
period. 8ee example above. 



224 EXERCISES UPON CO-ORDINATE CONSTRUCTIONS. 

General Exercises upon Co-ordinate Constructions. 
705. Analyze and classify the following examples: — 

Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British guard 
shall be stationed in every house ? It may cost treasure, and it may 
cost blood ; but it (the Declaration) will stand, and it will richly com- 
pensate for both. 

Fret till your proud heart break, 
Go, show your slaves how choleric you are, 
And make your bondmen tremble. 

Then out spake brave Horatius, the captain of the gate : 
" To every man upon this earth death cometh soon or late, 
And how can man die better than facing fearful odds 
For the ashes of his fathers and the temples of his gods ?". 

Truth crushed to earth shall rise again — 

The eternal years of God are hers ; 
But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, 

And dies amid her worshippers. 

But day after day to toil, and ever from sun to sun, 
Though up to the season's front, and nothing be left undone, 
Is ending at twelve like a clock, and beginning again at one. 

768. Turn any of the contracted compounds into complete 
compounds. 

767. Analyze the following interrogative sentences, and 
parse the interrogative words : — 

Who came in yesterday ? Who reported the doings of Congress ? 
Whose hat is this ? Whose knife have I found ? Whom did you visit ? 
Whom did the president nominate? Which book did you take? 
What name have his parents given him? What news have you 
heard ? How many soldiers were killed in the battle ? What kind 
of people first inhabited England? What is Charles doing? How is 
he? When shall you visit the Springs? When did he cancel the 
debt? How long did he stay? How often does George visit his 
mother? Where is the promised fruit of all his toil? Whence comes 
this tumult? Whither are you going? Why do you weave around 



SPECIAL CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 225 

you this thread of occupation ? How did you come ? In what way 
do you intend to go? To whom shall I deliver the message? At 
what time shall we send the letter ? 

768. Write answers to the above sentences, and draw a line 
under that part to which the question refers. Be careful to 
change the (?) to ( . ) 

Ex. — David came in yesterday. 

769. Write sentences introduced by the following interrog- 
atives : — 

Why? On what account? Where? When? Whose? Of 
whom? On what? Whither? Whence? In what place? How 
many? Whom? Which? In consideration of what? On what 
condition ? How ? Wherein ? By what ? Over whom ? On what ? 
Under what ? Through what ? On whose account ? 

770. Write an answer to each, and point out all the ele- 
ments omitted by ellipsis. 



Special Cautions and Directions. 

771. Since co-ordinate combination is but one remove 
from co-ordinate succession, there is danger of attempting 
the former when the latter is preferable. 

(a.) It is best to part the members into two separate sentences (1) when the 
two thoughts do not blend in one, so as to produce one general effect. (2) When 
the sentence would become too long, even if the connection were otherwise suffi- 
ciently close to admit of their union. 

772. The learner should bear in mind that too many co- 
ordinate constructions, with its repetition of "and," 
become tiresome. Let simple, complex, and compound 
sentences be properly mingled. 

773. Unless great emphasis is required, the conjunction 
should be omitted whenever the connection is sufficiently 
obvious without it. 



226 SPECIAL CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

774. In close combinations the comma should be used to 
denote the omission of the conjunction, but in loose 
combinations of propositions the semicolon or the colon 
should be used. 

775. With a knowledge of all the elements, and of every 
kind of combination in every kind of sentence, the learner 
should transform and reconstruct his sentences in every 
possible way, for the purpose of acquiring skill in forming 
sentences and of readily judging of their merits or 
demerits. 

Suggestion. — It is of the first importance that the learner acquire the hahit 
of recognizing an element at once by its form and use. When a sentence is 
given, whatever may he its length, look, at once, for the subject and the predi- 
cate of the principal clause ; the former, in a vast majority of instances, will be a 
single word, and the latter, perhaps, in a majority of cases, will have one sub- 
stantial and one or more formative elements (430. 1, 2, etc.); in many others it 
will be a single word. Let the predicate in its various forms become a distinct 
study till it can be recognized and accounted for at a glance, in any form. 

In like manner, any other phrasal element should be studied either in its 
simple or complex forms as a phrase. In disposing of any element which has 
an exponent or formative word, the vital point is to recognize the connection, 
and to be able, at once, to point out the two connected terms. He who has 
learned to parse a preposition and its object in one case will find nothing sub- 
stantially different in any other case. He has mastered the phrase. 

So every subordinate clause should be recognized as a distinct form, having 
its formative and substantial parts; and when these are disposed of in one case ( 
they are virtually disposed of for every other case. This analogy or resemblance 
of forms should be carefully noted. When one can readily dispose of any word, 
any phrase, and any clause in any relation, he has mastered the principles of 
construction. 



CHAPTEE VI. 

LOGICAL AND RHETORICAL ELEMENTS OF THE 

SENTENCE. 



The Several Elements Distinguished. 

776. Gh^ammar treats of the expression of thought ; logic, 
of thought as expressed ; rhetoric, of the effective expression 
of both thought and feeling. 

(a.) In each the mind takes note of thought and of expression, bnt in different 
degrees and in different tvays. Grammar makes language — that is, words, phrases, 
and clauses, with their various classes, properties and relations, — the special object 
of attention ; yet it does not wholly overlook the thought. It makes language 
predominant and thought incidental. Logic takes thought, its laws and its 
forms, as its special realm. Still, it must regard thought as it appears in lan- 
guage, and therefore must recognize language so far as it is the organ and instru- 
ment of thought. It treats of thought especially, but recognizes language in a 
subordinate way. Rhetoric brings into distinct recognition thought, feeling , and 
expression, yet it does not at the same moment make each equally prominent. 
In the act of expressing thought and feeling, thought and feeling are predomi- 
nant ; in the act of determining the fitness and effectiveness of expression, lan- 
guage becomes prominent. Hence, in respect to thought and language, some- 
times one and sometimes the other predominates. Rhetoric differs from logic in 
demanding the best forms of expression for both thought and feeling; whereas 
the demands of logic are satisfied when thought alone is correctly and fully 
expressed. It differs from grammar in regarding language in its actual union 
with thought as if permeated and made alive by it; whereas grammar looks 
upon language as an organism of itself, yet dissected and broken into parts, with 
life extinct. 

(6.) The Grammarian seeks to classify the words, phrases, and clauses, and to 
ascertain their properties, relations, and syntactical combinations. While doing 
this the mind cannot realize the thought or bring it into prominence. The 
Logician looks directly through the expression to the thought, giving the least 
possible attention to the former in his effort to grasp the latter. The moment 
he entertains a single idea of grammatical distinctions, language ceases to be 
expression and becomes a thing of itself. The Rhetorician, if in the act of 

227 



228 THE EMBODIMENT OF THOUGHT IN LANGUAGE. 

expressing thought and feeling, must have a full and conscious apprehension 
of hoth, with a fixed purpose of impressing the same upon the hearer's attention ; 
if in the act of determining the fitness and effectiveness of language already 
uttered, he must still realize the thought and feeling in order to judge of the 
language. 

Suggestion. — It is not the purpose of this chapter to discuss the principles 
of rhetoric or of logic as such, hut to show under what conditions and hy what 
means thought, including feeling and volition, is effectively expressed. In dis- 
cussing a sentence as a thought expressed in words, we have already dwelt at 
length upon expression as such. It is proposed here to give prominence to 
thought as it appears in language. How, then, does language become the effective 
expression of thought ? 



SECTION I. 



FUNDAMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR THE EFFECTIVE USE OF 
LANGUAGE. 

Language a Means to a twofold End. 

777. Language is employed, — 

1. To embody the thoughts and feelings of the speaker or writer. 

2. To awaken corresponding thoughts and feelings in the mind of 
the hearer or reader. 

(a.) To accomplish these ends effectively, it must not, at the moment of its use, 
engross the attention of either party. Both must pass, without embarrassment, 
the one from thought to expression, the other from expression to thought, and 
each with the least possible consciousness of the transition. 

A. Conditions for the Speaker or Writer. 
The Embodiment of Thought in Language. 

778. The primary condition for effective speaking or 
writing is that thought, as it arises in the mind, shall 
instantly and spontaneously embody itself in language. 

(a.) It must be done instantly, otherwise the delay will impair the effect; 
spontaneously, or the attention will be divided between thought and expression, 
and the act of thinking will be embarrassed. 



THE EMBODIMENT OF THOUGHT IN LANGUAGE. 229 

(b.) This condition can be fulfilled only when thought and symbols, by repeated 
associations, come into the most intimate union; in other words, when the lan- 
guage is completely mastered. 

(c.) When feeling and volition are to be expressed, they must enter into though t, 
and be expressed with it. Feeling alone may be uttered by interjections (353), 
but usually it arises with thought and enters into it as heat into iron, moulding 
it for peculiar styles and uses. Volition or choice is always expressed in con 
nection with thought; as, " I xvill hm\d the house." The term " thought " will 
often be used as equivalent to thought, feeling, and volition. 

779. Between thought and words there is no natural 
and necessary connection. 

(a.) In language, that is natural which has become habitual, that is spontaneous 
which habit enables us to perform as if by instinct, without voluntary or even 
conscious effort. 

(6.) In case of the most familiar words and phrases the association begins in 
infancy, and the mind will never recall a period of conscious effort. But in 
all later acquisitions, words and phrases have come to us in answer to a pressing 
want, an inward craving for the means of utterance. New thoughts are con- 
stantly creating demands for new expressions. These must be made familiar by 
a voluntary effort to recall and use them. They become our own only by 
repeated associations. At first, they are recalled with a struggle often painful 
and embarrassing ; but when the impression is complete, the effort ceases and 
the embarrassment disappears. Thus, in respect to all mastered language, the 
mind must have experienced these three states, namely, that of repeated effort, 
that of fixed impression, and that of ready expression. 

Note. — It is worthy of the student's special attention to note the fact that of 
the one hundred thousand words in the language he really has at command but 
a small fraction, perhaps from two to four thousand. Professor Whitney says 
(Language and the Study of Language, p. 18), " Out of this immense mass it has 
been reckoned by careful observers that from three to five thousand answer all 
the ordinary ends of familiar intercourse, even among the cultivated." Consider, 
then, that some two or three thousand words, with their various permutations 
and combinations, constitute an ordinary student's entire stock of expressions. 

Remember, too, that he has nearly all the means of expression which his pres- 
ent attainments require, and it is easy to see. from the more than ninety-five 
thousand words, at present little better to him than foreign words, what worlds 
of thought and worlds of language remain to be conquered. And then, to master 
a foreign language, beginning with nothing that can be used effectively, where 
everything is to be impressed upon the mind, one can readily see. is no easy task. 
To acquire the meaning and peculiar use of words so as not to suggest a false 
imagery (as when the German called " the narrow way" the small road), to put 
20 



2)0 THE EMBODIMENT OF THOUGHT IN LANGUAGE. 

the words in the right place so as to conform to the foreign and not the native 
idiom, to give them the right pronunciation and orthography, and then so to 
join the whole into successive sentences as not, by accent or hesitation, to betray 
one's nationality, requires continued practice, severe application, and incessant 
painstaking. 

780. To employ language effectively, none of the pro- 
cesses involved in the study of language, though essential 
to linguistic culture, must be allowed to interfere with the 
processes of embodying and uttering thought. 

(a.) To attempt to speak with the rules of grammar or rhetoric consciously 
before the mind is to defeat the very purpose of speech, namely, the expression 
of thought. To be convinced of this, one has only to try it. At the moment of 
expressing a real want, let every part of speech be distinguished one by one as 
it enters into the sentence. 

(6.) In the processes for linguistic culture, the attention must necessarily be 
divided between thought and language. Eules may be learned and consciously 
applied ; forms of expression may be examined and imitated ; one's own 
thoughts may be consciously embodied in the higher types of language found in 
standard authors ; words in all their various functions may be carefully studied; 
sentences may be constructed, recast, and rearranged to conform to given models ; 
one's own language may be called up for revision and correction, — and all this 
with the attention sometimes upon the thought, sometimes upon the expression, 
and sometimes upon both. But this can never be in the earnest expression of 
thought. With any of these processes prominently before the mind, language 
loses that essential and indescribable element which the French call " Onction," 
unction. Hence, 

781. As another fundamental condition to the effective 
use of language, the attention at the moment of embody- 
ing and uttering thought must be fixed predominantly 
upon the thought, and but slightly, if at all, upon the 
expression. 

(a.) This is possible only when habit, as a " second nature," a kind of linguistic 
instinct, relieves the attention from any direct oversight of the language, — when 
the choice of words and the construction of sentences can take place without 
conscious effort. To be effective the language must become a spontaneous 
expression of the speaker's present thinking in all its freshness and vitality. He 
finds himself expressing his thoughts best when he thinks of his expression 
least, when he so completely identifies himself with his thoughts that it may be 
truly said of him, " He expresses himself." 



THE EMBODIMENT OF THOUGHT IN LANGUAGE. 231 

(b.) And yet the language must be not only correct, but in every respect 
suited to the thought. This will be so when the habits and tastes are properly 
cultivated. In language a single use of an expression, or a single resolution to 
correct an erroneous one, will be of little avail. Correct habits must be estab- 
lished by persevering effort ; erroneous habits must give place to correct habits. 

782. So, again, the two processes of embodying thought 
and uttering language must be harmoniously blended and 
carried on together, yet without direct attention. 

(a.) These are not necessarily combined. We can think by means of words, 
without uttering them — this is expression to one's self; or we can utter words 
without thinking — this is expression to no one. Children, in learning to read 
and in many of their exercises committed to memory, often utter words merely. 
But when thought really inspires the oral utterance, the peculiar tones, inflec- 
tions, emphasis, pauses, and cadences are the unmistakable tokens of a perfect 
union of the two processes, just as the choice and arrangement of words and 
the form and flow of the sentences are like tokens in case of written language. 
An imperfect union betrays itself in hesitancy, as when a speaker stumbles in 
the choice of a word or becomes perplexed in the construction of a sentence. 

783. As a final condition for the effective expression of 
thought, there must be, in its development, an ultimate 
aim, and this must be kept steadily in view. 

784. This aim is usually twofold, — 

1. To develop a leading thought. 

2. To produce a proposed effect upon the hearer. 

(a.) The first requires the proper organization of thought ; the second a proper 
regard to the character and circumstances of the hearer. A complex being, with 
reason, imagination, passion, and will, is to be addressed. He is to be informed, 
pleased, convinced, aroused, and moved to action. It may not be difficult for 
one to express his thoughts, but so to express them as to carry the hearer in the 
line of his purpose requires the earnestness of strong conviction, the intensity 
of awakened emotion, and the command of impressive language. 

785. The organization of thought presupposes one gov- 
erning idea and a group of subordinate ideas gathered 
around it. 

(a.) This governing idea, whether formally stated or not. must become the pre- 
dominant object of attention ; otherwise irrelevant matter suggested by asso- 



232 THE EMBODIMENT OF THOUGHT IN LANGUAGE. 

ciation will enter in and destroy the unity of the whole. Around this principal 
idea all the others arrange themselves by some natural connection. Those 
which are directly subordinate ally themselves most closely and will be of the 
same rank, and if indicated at all will be marked with similar headings, as co- 
ordinate paragraphs or sections. Those which are immediately dependent on 
these will be similarly co-ordinated, till all are adjusted in systematic order, 
and the organization thus becomes complete. 

786. The organization of thought presupposes also an 
actual investigation and a consequent knowledge of the 
truths to be set forth. 

(a.) It is a most unreasonable requirement to assign to a beginner some set 
theme like " The Pleasures of Hope " — a theme which he has not so thoroughly 
investigated for himself as to become interested in — and then to expect of him 
an original composition, in which no thought of another has been appropriated. 
Nor is it less unreasonable, in the early stages, to return his productions marked 
from beginning to end with those awe-inspiring symbols in red or blue which 
betoken errors in spelling, errors in the use of capitals, errors in punctuation, 
errors in grammar, etc., etc., as if language was everything and thought nothing. 
The error lies in the relative, not to say exclusive, prominence given to language. 
All errors in language must, at some time, be noticed. 

(6.) This whole conception of the exercise is wrong. No person can write 
until he has thoughts. At first the main strength of teacher and pupil should 
be directed thought-ward. The expression — though always important — should 
not at the beginning claim special attention. Thoughts must be gathered, 
revolved, organized, intensified, and made to glow before they can be expressed 
effectively as one's own. The gathering must come from actual observation, from 
oral instruction, from lectures, from general reading, from special study, or from 
all these combined. The knowledge must become a matter of personal expe- 
rience before it can be expressed in one's own language. It must be so inwrought 
into the fibres of his being, so moulded by his own personality, that in express- 
ing it, he expresses himself also. 

(c.) If it is said that this is exacting too much of a beginner, the answer is, it 
is exacting no more than he is accomplishing every day in all the language 
which he uses effectively. The family circle and the playground are witnesses 
of his earnest and stirring expression of thought and feeling. Let him have a 
subject as completely wrought into his mind as those which he discusses with his 
associates, and free his mind from the terror which surrounds the idea of sub- 
mitting for " criticism " a written composition, and he will in a reasonable time 
express his thoughts with the pen, eloquently and in his own language. 

(d.) That teacher who sees to it that the thoughts (not the language merely) 
of the daily lessons are thoroughly organized in the pupil's mind, will never 
lack for suitable themes for a composition. That method which encourages the 



EXERCISES IN ORGANIZING THOUGHT. 233 

learner to express himself freely in such language as he can command, and at 
first approaches errors in language gradually, and then more on account of 
their pernicious influence upon the thought than on account of their inherent 
demerits, will ensure interest and success in the exercise. Let the impression be 
strongly made that the pupil has an exercise in thought and expression, but 
thought first — first in time, first in importance, forever first — and expression, as 
the instrument by which it is to be set forth and adorned, and he will steadily 
rise in his command over both. 

787. With well-arranged thought at his command, a 
speaker or writer may easily have prominently in mind 
the effect which he proposes to produce upon the hearer 
or reader. 

(a.) If he aims to inform, his language will naturally assume the narrative or 
didactic style. If, in addition, he desire to please, he will readily incorporate 
some of the graces of style ; his thoughts will be presented in agreeable imagery. 
If he aims to convince, to persuade, or to arouse, his language will become argu- 
mentative, persuasive, or impassioned. Thus the proposed effect will determine 
the style. 

788. In short, to become effective, language must be an 
immediate outgrowth from earnest thinking ; it must be 
called forth for a specific purpose ; and, as the instrument 
of the thought, it must be wielded with ease and grace, 
without becoming in the slightest degree obtrusive. 



Examples and Exercises in Organizing Thought. 

789. Let it be required to put into systematic order the 
thoughts involved in " The elementary sounds of the English 
Language." 

The pupil is supposed to have acquired a knowledge of the sounds by actually 
producing them. We have, then, as the chief thought, — 

ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

Directly subordinate to this we have, — 
I. Vocals. 
II. Subvocals. 
III. Aspirates. 
20* 



234 



EXERCISES IN ORGANIZISG THOUGHT. 



Arranged so as to show their dependence, they stand thus: — 

{1. Vocals. 
2. Subvocals. 
3. Aspirates. 

In this we follow the order of vocality; complete in the first, partial in the 
second, and wholly wanting in the third. 

Vocals are either long or short; subvocals and aspirates are continuous or 
explosive. Thus we have, — 

Long. 
Short. 

1. Continuous. 

2. Explosive. 

o . . , f 1. Continuous. 
6. Aspirates. < 



1. Vocals. 
ELEN NTARV SOUNDS \ 2. Subvocals 



V, 



■{ 



2. Explosive. 

Here we follow the order of duration in the utterance. Although there may 
still be subdivisions, and even cross divisions, this is sufficient for an orderly 
development of the theme. 

790. Let it be required to show the organization of thought 
in the following : Chapter I. of Dr. Lowell Mason's " Song 
Garden." 

Omitting his numbering and analytical arrangement, it stands thus: "Tones 
are readily distinguished as being long or short, low or high, soft or loud. It follows 
from the above that every tone has three essential properties or conditions of 
existence, length. pitch, and force. Hence, it is convenient to divide the rudi- 
ments of music into three departments, rhythmics, melodies, and dynamics." 
Arranged according to this scheme, we have, — 



MUSIC. 



791. In your text-book on Geography show the divisions, 
subdivisions, and dependence of thought, (1) in Geography as 
the chief topic; (2) in Mathematical Geography; (3) in the 





( 1. Long or short 


Distinctions in tones. 


< 2. Low or high. 




[ 3. Soft or loud. 




( 1. Length. 


Properties of tones. 


< 2. Pitch. 




{ 3. Force. 




C 1. Rhythms. 


Departments. 


< 2. Melodies. 




( 3. Dynamics. 



EXERCISES IN ORGANIZING THOUGHT. 235 

Geography of Massachusetts; (4) in Inhabitants of the 
Earth. 

792. In arithmetic give the order of dependence of the 
topics under Fractions, Percentage, and Square Root. 

The teacher will take any other topics instead, if the state of the class require 
a change. 

793. Arrange and put in systematic form your lessons in 
History for the past week. 

794. Show the author's method of organizing the thoughts 
in your text-books, taking the lessons of to-day. 

795. After completing the history of the campaign termi- 
nating in the surrender of Burgoyne, develop the design and 
plan of the campaign. 

796. Carefully organize your thoughts on any of the follow- 
ing objects : apples, leaves, beavers, houses, tents, ice, kites, 
bricks; or the following occupations: farming, weaving, 
hunting, hat-making, shipping; or the following events: 
The capture of Louisburg. The surrender at York town. 
The discovery of America. The invention of printing. 
Also in proof of the following statements: The pen is 
mightier than the sword. The method of inventing and 
arranging thought should precede our attempts to express 
it. 



Ex.— Apple. 



1. Its form, color and flavor, 



2. Its component parts. 



3. Its uses. 

Employ the blackboard for this exercise. 



236 THE REALIZATION OF THOUGHT AND FEELING. 

B. Conditions for the Hearer or Reader. 
The Interpretation of Symbols. 

797. The primary condition for effective hearing or 
reading is an instant and a spontaneous recognition and 
interpretation of the symbols which embody thought. 

(a.) Here, as in the opposite process (778), either delay or diversion of attention 
impairs the effect. In the case of hearing, this condition can be fulfilled only 
by those who are as familiar with words and idioms as the speaker himself. In 
hearing, a failure to recognize the symbols, to create and group the images, to 
carry forward the subordinate parts, will be fatal to the effect. 

798. The hearer justly claims from the speaker an 
exemption from any unnecessary effort in apprehending the 
language. 

(a.) In other words, he has a right to demand that the speaker shall so choose 
his words, so arrange the phrases and clauses, and so construct the sentences 
that the least possible effort of attention shall be required in the interpretation. 
(See Mr. Herbert Spencer on economy of the hearer's attention.) 

799. Every process in interpretation is the exact con- 
verse of the corresponding process in expression. 

(a.) The first party thinks, embodies, and speaks; the second hears, interprets, 
and thinks. The first moves from thought to language, the second from language 
to thought. Both are active, the former in conceiving images and abstractions in 
language, the latter in receiving images and abstractions from language. Both 
fix the attention predominantly upon the thought, the former while combining 
and uttering symbols, the latter while recognizing and interpreting them. An 
habitual use of the symbols is alike necessary to relieve both parties from atten- 
tion to subordinate processes. 



The Realization of Thought and Feeling. 

800. Another condition for effective hearing or reading 
is, that thought and feeling shall be instantly realized. 

(a.) While the mind is laboring to form one conception, if others are forced upon 
the attention, the result will be a loss of important ideas, and, in the end, a total 
withdrawal from the contest. In reading, however, an attentive review may 



THOUGHT NOT EXPRESSED BY LANGUAGE. 237 

restore the missing conceptions. This condition requires that the separate thoughts, 
when abstract, shall be placed in their proper relations by the thinking faculty, 
and when concrete (823) shall be instantly imaged forth, and grouped, by the 
image-making faculty. In all this the mind of the hearer must be even more 
active than - that of the speaker. 

801. Another condition is that the images formed shall 
be true to the originals or true to nature. 

(a.) It does not follow, by any means, because one is familiar with words, that 
he will instantly create and group the true conceptions. A traveller once, in 
attempting to awaken an adequate conception of the huge blocks of stone in the 
ancient quarry at Baalbec, found that the statement of their dimensions, sixty- 
eight feet long, and fifteen feet square at the ends, usually produced little or no 
impression. But when he informed his hearers that a single block would more 
than fill jour rooms like that which they were occupying, their amazement became 
unbounded. Symbols do not, in the ordinary sense of the term, " convey 
thought.'' As hints or signs they stimulate or awaken thought; they incite the 
hearer to create images which may be similar to those in the speaker's mind, 
but cannot be the sam,e. 

(b.) Thus, when a speaker informs us of what he actually saw, that " the eagle 
was feeding her young," he applies the words to images derived directly from 
the originals. These he cannot convey to any one. He has no symbols for that 
particular eagle, for those eaglets, or for that individual act of feeding. All he 
can do is to conceive the objects (eagle, eaglets) as belonging respectively to large 
classes of objects, and the act of feeding to a large class of acts. How can the 
hearer who was not an eye-witness determine which one of the many in these 
classes to call up ? Besides, he may never have seen an eagle, or he may have 
seen but a single example in some collection of birds. The image which he 
forms, drawn from some picture, or from this single example, cannot be the 
same as that in the mind of the speaker. While the speaker, therefore, with 
his mind's eye resting upon the scene as it really was, uses the words, eagle, feed- 
ing, and young, he must not expect to convey his own identical thoughts to the 
hearer. His were, or should have been, true to the originals ; his hearer's are 
right when true to nature. 



Thought not Expressed by Language. 

802. Other thoughts not represented by the language 
at all will often accompany these, and must be in harmony 
with them. 

(a.) To the spectator the scene is instantly located as it was ; to the hearer it 
cannot be in mid- air. He must realize to himself the image of a nest, " an eyrie 



238 EXERCISES IX THE REALIZATION OF THOUGHT. 

on cliff or cedar top," with its surroundings of crags, mountains, clouds, and a 
score of other accompaniments. While the spectator recalls all these as they were, 
the hearer does well if he creates those which are not incongruous and untrue to 
nature. When the language describes scenes equally familiar to both parties, we 
should naturally expect them to think alike, yet so different are our habits of 
observation in respect to minuteness, accuracy, and power of insight that even 
then we may suppose their thoughts only approximately alike. With those 
whose habits of observation are inaccurate and careless, not only the direct, but 
the accompanying, images are often unnatural and strangely mixed. 

803. That language which describes objects and scenes 
remote in time or place, especially when accompanied by- 
accessories unfamiliar to us, is realized with great difficulty. 

(a.) As examples, let one attempt to picture to himself the ancient battering- 
ram, a trireme, a catapult. 

(6.) The difficulty is greatly increased when the language itself becomes 
abstract ; for then the hearer must pass from the abstract to the more concrete, 
as from humanity to human, from virtue to virtuous, and then from the class thus 
indicated (824) to some single example, as a Washington or a Socrates. 



Exercises in the Realization of Thought. 

804. Examine thoughtfully the following description of the 
hermit's hut in Ivanhoe. Endeavor to realize all the images 
which the language represents, then mention any accompanying 
images which the scene suggests. 

"Accordingly, he soon reached an open plat of turf, on the opposite 
side of which a rock, rising abruptly from a gentle sloping plain, offered 
its gray and weather-beaten front to the traveller. Ivy mantled its 
sides in some places, and in others oaks and holly bushes, whose roots 
found nourishment in the cliffs of the crag, waved over the precipices 
below, like the plumage of the warrior over his steel helmet, giving 
grace to that whose chief expression was terror. At the bottom of 
the rock, and leaning, as it were, against it, was constructed a rude hut, 
built chiefly of the trunks of trees felled in the neighboring forests, 
and secured against the weather by having its crevices stuffed with 
moss mingled with clay. 

" The stem of a young fir tree lopped of its branches, with a piece of 
wood tied across near the top, was planted upright by the door, as a 



WHAT IS DEMANDED OF LANGUAGE. 2o9 

rude emblem of the holy cross. At a little distance on the right hand, 
a fountain of the purest water trickled out of the rock, and was 
received in a hollowed stone which labor had formed into a rustic 
basin. Escaping from thence, the stream murmured down the descent 
by a channel which its course had long worn, and so wandered through 
the little plain to lose itself in the neighboring wood. 

" Beside this fountain were the ruins of a very small chapel of which 
the roof had partly fallen in. The building when entire had never been 
above sixteen feet long by twelve in breadth, and the roof, low in 
proportion, rested upon four concentric arches which sprung from the 
four corners of the building, each supported upon a short and heavy 
pillar. The ribs of two of these arches remained, though the roof had 
fallen down betwixt them ; over the others it remained entire." 

805. Seek out any similar passage and exercise the imagi- 
nation in realizing it in all its details. 



SECTION II. 



MEANS AND METHODS BY WHICH THE PRECEDING 
CONDITIONS ARE FULFILLED. 

What is Demanded of Language. 

806. Logic demands that thought shall be truly and 
fully expressed. 

(a.) It demands this, and nothing more, nothing less. Yet, if need be, it per- 
mits the expression of feeling, as also any of the devices by which the art of 
rhetoric seeks to give effectiveness to expression. Thus, in the sentence, 
,: Geometry treats of lines ; geometry treats of surfaces ; geometry treats of 
volumes," the demands of logic are fully answered ; yet by a simple device, 
called ellipsis, the sentence may be greatly improved: "Geometry treats of 
lines, surfaces, and volumes." By admitting this change, we express the thought 
with sufficient fulness, and with great gain in the effect. In the sentence. " Hubert 
is the most industrious of all the other boys in school," the demands of logic are 
not met, for the language does not express the thought intended. (See 284. 6.) 



240 HOW LANGUAGE ANSWERS THESE DEMANDS. 

807. Gram map demands that the language itself shall 
conform to standard usage. 

(a.) It makes the usages of the best speakers and writers the criterion by 
which we judge of what is true and correct in expression itself. Language 
which is grammatically wrong may express thought, but never correctly, never 
effectively. Thus, in the following sentence from Burke, : ' We derive as much, 
or more, pleasure from that source than from the thing itself," the error in the 
expression (400) not only weakens the effect by drawing attention from thought 
to language (781. a), but it vitiates the whole sentence as a correct expression of 
the thought. • 

808. Rhetoric demands the effective expression of thought, 
feeling, and volition. 

(a.) Thus, in expressing mere thought, if the language contain superfluous 
words, or is badly arranged, rhetoric demands a correction for the purpose of 
improving the effect. In expressing thought and feeling, rhetoric demands in 
addition to these the rejection of all feeble words, the choice of impressive, 
sometimes vivid or picturesque, words, and that these shall be so combined as 
to produce the best effect. So, again, when we. would express strong feeling, 
desires, inquiries, hints, insinuations, commands, or entreaties, rhetoric often 
demands that we pass outside the realm of logic to give to these effective utter- 
ance. See examples below. 



How Language Answers these Demands. 

809. In all sentences language represents the separate 
ideas, or conceptions, by ivords and phrases, and in all 
logical sentences it represents the entire thought as some 
judgment or opinion of the speaker distinctly declared. 
In merely rhetorical sentences there is only an implied 
enunciation of a judgment. 

(a.) Logic recognizes no sentence but the declarative (6). All other expressions 
taking the form of the imperative, the interrogative, or the exclamatory sentence, 
and not representing a positive judgment of the speaker, are sentences only in 
rhetoric. Thus, " Strike, till the last armed foe expires !" " What if the heavens 
should fall?" "What is man, that thou art mindful of him?" "May your 
shadow never be less," are sentences in rhetoric, but not in logic. They express 
conceptions, and often combine them in the most effective manner for the purpose 
intended. They abound in impassioned language, and are invaluable as rhetori- 
cal sentences. 



COMPLETE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 241 

810. In any sentence, whether logical or rhetorical, 
the language expresses thought or thought and feeling 
effectively, when the words and their combinations are 
best suited to accomplish the end for which it is con- 
structed. 

(a.) Thus, when the end in view is the expression of an abstract truth, the 
sentence becomes effective, and is therefore rhetorically correct, when it affirms 
the truth in terms which are exact, and the whole is free from superfluous 
words. By being grammatically and logically correct it becomes rhetorically 
correct. In other words, the demands of logic answer the demands of rhetoric. 
In many cases, the closest analysis can point out no distinctive rhetorical element. 
In all other cases the chief distinctive rhetorical devices are those which guard 
redundancies and obscurities. 



(6.) But when the end is to express thought and sentiment, the demands of 
grammar and logic do not always answer the demands of rhetoric. The words 
must be such as appeal to the imagination and awaken the sensibilities; and the 
sentences, by various peculiarities of structure, must tend to the same general 
end. The distinctive rhetorical elements will then appear in the words chosen, 
in the figures employed, in the arrangement of the parts, and in the combined 
whole. 

(c.) Finally, when the end is to insinuate, intimate, or inquire for a thought, 
or to appeal to the sensibilities, the passions, or the will, the demands of rhetoric 
become predominant, and require the structure of a sentence which is dis- 
tinctively rhetorical. The rhetorical elements then appear both in the form and 
in the parts of the sentence. 



Complete Analysis of Sentences. 

811. A sentence is analyzed completely when not only 
its grammatical, but its logical and rhetorical, elements 
are pointed out. It is correct, — 

1. Grammatically, when its words, phrases, and clauses are formed 
and combined according to established nsage. 

2. Logically, not necessarily because it announces a truth, but 
because it affirms the thought or judgment intended. Thus, to say 
that one accidentally murdered his best friend, would fail to express 
the thought intended. To murder involves the idea of malice and a 
purpose. It should be, One accidentally killed, etc. 

21 



242 EXAMPLES IN COMPLETE ANALYSIS. 

3. Rhetorically, not because it abounds in external devices or 
exhibits the signs of an effort to impress the hearer, but because in a 
true and effective manner it accomplishes the end intended by the 
speaker. This end may be to inform, to convince, to please, to per- 
suade, to excite, or to move to action. 

(a.) A declarative sentence is defective when it has faults in any of its gram- 
matical, logical, or rhetorical elements; all other sentences are defective when 
they have errors in the grammatical or the rhetorical elements. In these sentences 
logic can have reference only to the expression of ideas or conceptions, since they 
do not affirm opinions or judgment. 



Exercises and Examples in Complete Analysis. 

Suggestion. — These examples are intended to show, not in detail, but in a 
general way, what is meant by analyzing a sentence in all respects. The student 
will find in this analysis a marked difference in the objects which claim his atten- 
tion. In grammatical analysis, words, phrases, and clauses, as classified into 
parts of speech, having properties of their own, and sentences as simple, com- 
plex, or compound, occupy the mind almost exclusively ; the thought cannot be 
wholly disregarded. In logical and rhetorical analysis; thought, or thought and 
feeling, some purpose and the means of accomplishing it, claim the chief attention ; 
language becomes the medium through which the mind looks upon the thought, 
and is itself scarcely recognized in the effort to grasp and realize the same. 
When we read or listen for thought, we never distinguish parts of speech ; when 
we read or listen for parts oj speech, we never realize thought. 

812. Ex. 1. — "An axiom is a self-evident truth" 

1. This is grammatically correct, since the words are correctly used 
and are combined to express the whole thought, in accordance with the 
established usages of the language. It is analyzed in detail by the 
Models in Chapter II. 

2. It is logically correct, inasmuch as the words " axiom," " self- 
evident," and "truth" express the conceptions with precision, and 
their combination affirms the judgment intended. 

3. It is rhetorically correct, since it fully accomplishes its end of 
expressing an abstract thought effectively. It presents no image to 
the mind's eye, it contains no external device, either in the words or in 
the construction for heightening the effect, yet it contains all that is 
required for its purpose, namely, an effective appeal to the under- 
standing. 



EXAMPLES IN COMPLETE ANALYSIS. 243 

813. Ex. 2. — " Volume has length, breadth, and thickness." 

1. This is grammatically correct, although, it requires for a complete 
construction the supplying of all the words which are demanded for 
logical fulness of expression. " Volume has length, volume has 
breadth, volume has thickness." 

2. Like the preceding, it is logically correct, since its terms are 
explicit, and it affirms the thought intended, and that with sufficient 
fulness. The word " thickness " expresses the required conception better 
than " depth," — the term sometimes used — since it does not introduce 
the needless and often erroneous idea of " downward." 

3. It is rhetorically correct, inasmuch as it accomplishes its end of 
expressing the abstract thought explicitly and concisely. To secure 
conciseness, it contains the external device of ellipsis, a figure employed 
to abbreviate the expression, and thereby to heighten the effect. 

814. Caution. — In employing ellipses, be careful that the 
parts retained do not hold a false relation to the parts omitted. 

Ex. — " He may revel in them (mathematics) incessantly, and eat, drink, and 
clothe himself with them ;" that is, " He may eat himself with them, drink him- 
self with them, and clothe himself with them." Corrected, " He may revel in 
them, eat them, drink them, and clothe himself with them." 

815. Ex. 3. — "It is clear and obvious that religious wor- 
ship should be regarded with pleasure and satisfaction by all 



In this sentence, although it may he said that the thought intended is fully 
expressed, and that the words are grammatically combined, yet the effect is 
greatly weakened by the redundant words in italics. Strike out these, and the 
sentence is rhetorically correct. 

816. Ex. 4. — "At length, on Saturday, December the 27th, 
as the twilight was closing into night, the intended queen of 
England set her foot upon the shore under the walls of Deal 
Castle."— Fronde. 

1. Here the words for the ideas are well chosen and are properly 
combined, and hence it is grammatically correct. 

2. The intended thought is clearly and explicitly stated, and hence 
the sentence is logically correct. 



244 EXAMPLES IN COMPLETE ANALYSIS. 

3. It aims to inform the reader, and at the same time to produce an 
agreeable effect. To do this, it appeals to the image-making faculty by 
presenting to the mind's eye individual objects — the closing of a winter 
twilight, the intended queen of England, the shore, the landing, Deal 
Castle. Again, the ideas are arranged so as to be carried along in the 
mind in such a way as to awaken agreeable expectations before the 
principal figure, the " intended queen," is introduced. The whole group 
of images interests the mind ; it is an effective sentence, inasmuch as 
it accomplishes its complex aim. Compare this with the preceding 
examples. 

817. Ex. 5.— 

"Methougkt the billows spoke, and told me of it; 
The winds did sing it to me ; and the thunder, 
TJiat deep and dreadful organ-pipe, pronounced 
The name of Prosper. It did bass my trespass" 

Shakspeare. 

1. Here notice the peculiarities in the expressions, " Methought," 
" did bass my trespass," " billows speaking," " winds singing," etc., etc. 

2. Here conceptions are expressed as in previous examples, and they 
are affirmed, but the ideas belong to the realm of fancy, and must be 
realized by the imagination. Compare them with those of the pre- 
ceding example. 

3. Observe again how different is the aim of the writer from that in 
any of the other examples. The whole scene is a fancy picture. It is 
not designed to give information, but to awaken an intense interest in 
ideas. Hence, it presents the images of billows speaking, of winds 
singing, of thunder pronouncing a name. Its aim as a part of the 
whole play (the Tempest) is to gratify the taste and to awaken emotion; 
in this respect it answers its end, and is in a high degree effective. 

818. Ex. 6. — "May our land be a land of liberty, the seat 
of virtue, the asylum of the oppressed, a, name and a praise 
in the whole earth, until the last shock of time shall bury the 
empires of the world in one common undistinguishable ruin !" 

1. Grammatically considered, it has all the combinations (23) neces- 
sary to a well -formed sentence. 



EXERCISES IN COMPLETE ANALYSIS. 245 

2. Although it contains terms which stand for conceptions, yet in 
logic it is not a sentence. 

3. Rhetorically considered, it is an effective sentence, inasmuch as it 
expresses a patriotic sentiment in an impressive manner. It is an 
exclamation, and as an appeal to the feelings is a true sentence, with 
marked points of excellence. 

819. In a similar way give the grammatical, logical, and 
rhetorical character of the following examples : — 

A piece of gold may be cut into parts so small as to be almost 
invisible. Every joy is a duty, and every duty a joy. There are 
occasions in life in which a great mind lives years of rapt enjoyment 
in a moment. Whence is it that veteran troops face an enemy with 
almost as little concern as they perform their exercise ? 

Would it might please your grace! On our entreaties to amend 
your faults ! Tell me, ye bloody butchers ! Ye villains, high and low ! 
Ye wretches who contrived, as well as ye who executed, the inhuman 
deed ! do you not feel the goads and stings of conscious guilt pierce 
through your savage bosoms ? 

Now the main body of the deer appeared at the head of the glen, 
compelled into a very narrow compass, and presenting such a formid- 
able phalanx that their antlers appeared at a distance over the ridge 
of the steep pass like a leafless grove. 

The day is done, and the darkness 
Falls from the wings of the Night, 

As a feather is wafted downward 
From an eagle in his flight. 

820. From the preceding examples, it appears that lan- 
guage is effective only when, as a means to an end, it is 
skilfully adapted to the kind of thought and feeling to be 
expressed and the kind of effect to be produced. 

(a.) A child instinctively changes his style of speaking when he passes from 
the playground to the school-room. Even the illiterate feel the impropriety 
when unsuitable words are used in serious discourse. Any careful observer 
will see that we have one class of words suited to tbe language of science, another 
to the language of sentiment, and still another to the language of passion 
21* 



246 WORDS AS EXPRESSIVE OF THO TIGHT AND FEELING. 

821. In fine, Grammar regards words, phrases, and 
clause, in respect to forms, classes, and combinations ; 
Logic regards thought — that is, conceptions and judgments 
as expressed; Rhetoric regards the effective expression of 
thought and feeling, whether in the form of judgments, 
inquiries, commands, hints, prayers, intimations, innu- 
endoes, or appeals. 



SECTION III. 
EFFECTIVENESS AS DEPENDENT UPON WORDS. 

Words as Expressive of Thought and Feeling. 

822. Words having the same substantial meaning pro- 
duce widely different effects, according as they assume the 
form of concretes, class-words, or abstracts. 



(a.) Thus, we have, — 






Concretes. 


Class-words. 


Abstracts. 


This traveller. 


traveller. 


travel. 


This instructor. 


instructor. 


instruction. 


This philosopher. 


philosopher. 


philosophy. 


That patriot. 


patriot. 


patriotism. 



823. A concrete word is one which represents an indi- 
vidual as an object by itself, with all its characteristic, attri- 
butes. 

(a.) Thus it brings us face to face with the real object, or its image; this 
sword, Absalom, my son, yonder bright star, Socrates, Baltimore, he, she, it, 
are concretes. Such words become effective by placing before the mind the 
image of the person or thing which is, at the moment, absorbing the attention. 
They call into exercise the image-making faculty, give definiteness to our con- 
ceptions, and enlist the sensibilities. They are the proper nouns, the individual- 
ized common nouns, and the pronouns which represent these. 

824. A class-word is a word which represents an indi- 



WORDS AS EXPRESSIVE OF TITO UGHT AND FEELING. 2-1 7 

vidual, not by itself, but as one of a class, not with its 
characteristic attributes, but with those only which it has 
in common with every other one in the class. 

(a.) They are neither wholly concretes nor wholly abstracts. Thus, horse, 
man, tree, bird, star, house, valley, are class-words. There is in these a recog- 
nition of the individual, but not alone, and by itself, as above, — not complete, 
that is, not having the characteristic marks which distinguish it from every 
other. They represent individuals as they appear in classes, with all the dis- 
tinguishing attributes set aside. Thus, "horse" represents one object, but what 
one ? Millions belong to the class, and the word is as good for a black as a white 
one, a small as a large one (801. b). To think of it as " white" is to place it in the 
class, white horses. To think of it as " the white horse of General Taylor" is to 
individualize it, and make it a concrete. But to think of it as "horse" is to 
assign to it only those attributes which are found in every other horse ; that is, 
the common attributes. These determine the meaning of the word. Thus, 
" man " means what is expressed by the word human. At the same time, it stands 
for or extends to all the individuals which can be called human. 

(b.) So running, sivimming, yellow, smooth, mean certain acts or qualities, 
and indirectly extend to all the individuals that perform the acts or possess the 
qualities. Thus they classify them by a common property. Class-words give 
us vague ideas of individuals, but may be so modified by adding to their meaning 
as to render them more and more definite (95. Obs.), till at length they are 
individualized. When a class- word is given, as " eagle " (801. b), and the mind 
of the hearer is active, he will instantly realize some individual. This activity 
of the mind will invest these words with peculiar interest. They constitute the 
great body of words in any language. They are, in grammar, the common 
nouns, and indirectly the adjectives, the verbs (as attributives), and the participles. 

825. An abstract word is one which represents not an 
individual, either by itself or in a class, but only an attri- 
bute, and that as wholly detached from any object. 

(a.) Thus, sweetness, flight, motion, gravity, consciousness, length, truth, pru- 
dence, veracity, are abstracts. They appeal to the \mderstanding alone. They 
express a meaning, but without object or image ; they extend to nothing at all. 
They are found in the language of common intercourse, as, height, depth, round- 
ness, truth, hope, virtue, peace, but belong especially to the language of science ; 
as, polarity, axiom, hypothesis, attraction, demonstration, sensation, perception, 
refraction. They stand at the opposite extreme from the concretes, with class- 
words between. 

(6.) They are usually formed from some attributive as a stem, and have a great 
variety of terminations. One of the most profitable studies in language is the 
investigation of the methods and forms by which we pass from the concrete 
through the semi-concrete to the different form? for the abstract. Thus, taking 



248 PRINCIPLES FOR THE CHOICE OF WORDS. 

the general idea of wisdom, we have this wise (one), ivise, wisdom., philosopher, 
philosophizing, philosophy . 

(c.) Though the abstract represents an attribute apart from any object, yet it 
is often so employed as to indicate the object to which it belongs, and at the 
same time to give special prominence to the attribute. Thus we may speak of 
" the sweetness of this cherry," instead of " this sweet cherry," " the fierceness of 
that tiger," instead of "that fierce tiger." In this way abstracts may become 
effective even for descriptive purposes. 

826. As a general rule, the subject or some prominent sub- 
stantive determines the whole sentence, as the expression 
of an abstract, a semi-abstract, or a concrete thought, and 
the attributives give it various degrees of shading and 
intensity. 

(a.) Compare examples (812. 813. with 816). It is also a general rule that our 
conceptions when given in the concrete are most interesting, most easily realized, 
and are best adapted to excite the feelings. When given in the abstract, they 
are most comprehensive, and are, therefore, best fitted for philosophical and 
scientific purposes. 

General Principles for the Choice of Words. 

827. The words must be adapted to the end to be accom- 
plished. 

(a.) If the precise and comprehensive conceptions of science are to be repre- 
sented, abstracts are the proper words; if scenes composed of objects and 
groups of objects are to be presented and characterized, concretes, accompanied 
with such attributives as will give them the proper shading, should be employed. 
Thus, a sunset, itself an attractive object, may be variously represented as 
obscure, brilliant, gorgeous. In this way a skilful writer like Sir Walter Scott 
introduces the reader at once into the scenes which occupy his own mind. 

(6.) When the end is kept steadily in view (784), an instinctive sense of pro- 
priety will usually secure one against gross errors, but it requires culture and 
extensive reading to employ language so as to give the most delicate shadings to 
thought and sentiment. Even good words out of keeping with thought are as 
erroneously used as if they were unauthorized words. 

828. To become effective, words most be chosen as 
expressions of thought and feeling, and not as parts of 
speech. 

(a.) We can choose words as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or verbs, and put 



CLASSIFICATION AND ADAPTATION OF WORDS. 249 

them into sentences ; but they will be sentences for grammatical purposes, and 
not for the utterance of earnest thought. In our real thinking or speaking we 
know no difference between nouns and adjectives, verbs and adverbs, — between 
single words, phrases, and clauses. We simply choose expressions for thought, 
regardless of form or grammatical distinctions. 

829. The choice should be made spontaneously. 

(a.) The idea of choice implies variety of expression and presupposes rival 
claims. The pressing demands for putting the thought in the best form, and 
the circumstances of the occasion, will often raise the question which of the 
various words and equivalent phrases best meets the want. The danger in such 
cases is that the effect will be impaired, — 

1. By a wavering choice, which gives rise to hesitation and 
stammering. 

2. By an injudicious choice, or one which fails to be in keeping 
with the thought, the occasion, or the laws of good usage. 

3. By no choice, or a simple drift along the current of a previous 
but uncultivated habit. 

(b.) The student will not suppose, because the effective use of language requires 
an instantaneous choice, that he should never deliberate (see 780. b). 



Exercises on the Classification and Adaptation of 
Words. 

830. State which of the following expressions are suited to 
scientific thought, and which to thought with imagery and 
sentiment : — 

Jagged cliffs, clear conception, rigid exactness, rifted clouds, varie- 
gated landscape, an absurd conclusion, a shady grove, raging billows, 
doctrine of limits, walls with turrets, the hues of autumn. 

Suggestion. — Let the thought be realized, then decide whether it takes a 
form such as might be painted, as, "A jagged cliff," or whether it is without 
form, as " A firm conviction." 

831. State which of the following words or expressions are 
abstracts, which are class-words, and which are concretes : — 

London, conclusion, gazelles, gorgeous, I, planetary, this honest 
man, munificence, speaking, ocean, indolence, quadruped, hopeful, 
harmonv, exactness, moose, beaver, lightning, clouds. 



250 LAWS WHICH REGULATE THE USE OF WORDS. 

832. For the following give corresponding abstracts and 
concretes : — 

Patient, hopeful, royal, praying, true, wise, long, fearful, insipid, 
wild, walking, speaking. 
Ex. — This patient one, patience. 

833. In like manner, give class-words and concretes for 
the following : — 

Composition, bounty, virtue, confidence, hope, breadth, flight, 
growth, meekness, prudence, composure. 

Ex. — Composer, or composing, this composer. Bounteous, this bounteous feast. 

Suggestion. — The point in 832. 833. is to obtain the three forms in which any 
attribute may be found, — the concrete, in which it applies to this one alone; as, 
this amiable person. — the class form, in which it may apply to any one possess- 
ing the attribute ; as, the amiable, or amiable, — the abstract, in which it applies 
to no one; as, amiability. 

834. Analyze the following sentences as in 812-818, and 

show what expressions determine their character as abstract or 
concrete : — 

To know is to be certain that something is. By daylight the next 
morning Tom Brown was marching through Eosshire, and in the 
evening hit the Caledonian canal, took the next steamer, and travelled 
as fast as boat and railway could carry him to Rugby Station. The 
emission theory supposes that minute particles pass from the luminous 
body in all directions. Gravitation is the tendency of one body 
toward another. With noiseless foot the assassin paces the lonely hall, 
half lighted by the moon ; he winds up the ascent of the stairs, and 
reaches the door of the chamber. 



Laws wkicli Regulate tlie Use of Words. 

835. Good usage is the standard by which all words 
must be tested. 

(a.) Usage determines as well the phrases as the words. 

836. According to Dr. Campbell, good usage has three 
characteristics, — 



EXERCISE UPON THE USE OF WO EDS. 251 

1. It is reputable, in opposition to that of the ignorant and vulgar. 

2. It is national, in opposition to that which is technical and 
provincial. 

3. It is present, in opposition to that which is 



837. Words correctly used will have three qualities, — 

1. Purity, that is, they will be English, and not foreign. 

2. Propriety, that is, they will not be misapplied, as when one 
cs of an invite to a party, a recommend to a situation, or of a good 

failing, or when one uses words (otherwise proper) out of keeping with 
the subject and the occasion. 

3. Precision. They will express the exact meaning intended, as when 
we discriminate between the uses of kill, murder, and assassinate; 
discover and invent; contagion and infection. 

(a.) Extensive reading and a careful observation of the expressions of good 
speakers and writers are essential to a good knowledge of the use of words. 

Exercise upon the Use of Words. 

838. Point old and characterize (836. 837.) the defects in tJie 
use of any u)ords in the following examples: — 

He was unpolite to his friends. Her hauteur was disgusting to all 
parties. It is to be hoped that that custom will never be resurrected. 
It is impossible to predicate what will be the issue of the present con- 
test. Directly he came to the city he began his search for the lost 
child. Neither of the twelve apostles were educated men. We stopped 
at the Mountain House. I wish you would bring me a couple of pen- 
knives. I expect they had a glorious time at the concert. He com- 
menced proof-reader in Philadelphia at the age of twenty-two. The 
bird abandoned her nest before the eggs were hatched. The boy was 
banished from the school for lying. For curiousness those pictures 
were quite noticeable. We all had an invite to Mrs. W.'s party. The 
boy seemed mulish and disagreeable. They were greatly dissatisfied 
with the waitress, and entered a formal complaint at the office. 

839. Give any words which the following would aptly 
characterize : — 

Cloud-capped, awe-inspiring, brilliant, detestable, famous, flowery, 
gilded, silvery. 



252 LANGUAGE USED FIGURATIVELY. 

840. In the following passage from Macaulay substitute the 
words in parenthesis, and if faulty shoiv in what respect : — 

" For ourselves we own (confess) that we do not understand (com- 
prehend) the common (usual) phrase, a good man, but a bad king; 
we can as easily conceive (apprehend) a good man and an unnatural 
(brutal) father, or a good man and a treacherous (tricky) friend. We 
cannot, in estimating (putting a, valuation upon) the character of 
an individual (a person), leave out of our consideration (estimate) his 
conduct (behavior) in the most important (essential) of all human rela- 
tions (situations)." 

841. Construct a sentence in which any of the following 
expressions shall take the prominent place, and then determine 
its character (826): — 

Strict account ; charming valley ; execrable shape ; gorgeous sun- 
set ; terrific storm ; the possibility of an apprehension ; landscape sur- 
rounded on all sides with hills; contemptible villain; multiplication 
of the divisor by the dividend ; peaceful slumber ; vast abyss of space ; 
countless multitudes ; starry hosts. 



Language Used Figuratively. 

842. A word or an expression is figurative when it is 
vised out of its ordinary signification, for the purpose of 
presenting a thought more effectively. 

(a.) In general, a word used figuratively awakens two kinds of conceptions or 
images, a literal and & figurative, the latter of which is the real one intended. 
Thus, in " Man ! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear," the mind instantly 
calls up & pendulum, a smile at one extreme of its vibration, and a tear at the 
other. But these conceptions are not what is intended. Man is the real object 
before the mind, and the states of joy and sorrow the two extremes between 
which he alternates. The whole thought is thus aptly indicated, "the resemblance 
pleases, and the idea of a life subject to perpetual alternations is impressively 
presented. 

843. An entire sentence is figurative when it is used out 
of its ordinary meaning. 

(a.) Thus, the apparently rhetorical sentence (809. a), " Hath he said it, and 



SOURCES AND USES OF FIGURES. 253 

shall he not. do it?" becomes, by the figure erotesis (863), a more forcible logical 
sentence than if it took the strictly logical form, " He hath said it, and he will 
do it." 

844. The figurative use of words is not peculiar to an 
advanced stage of a language, but abounds most in its 
infancy. 

(a.) All words which now apply to mental actions or states had once a physical 
application. A joy was a leaping up; an apprehension was a laying hold of ; a 
discussion was a shaking to pieces; a spirit was breath or wind. These literal 
meanings gradually faded away, till at length the figurative became the literal. 
The greatest advantage in studying the history of words is the recovery of these 
faded images, and the discovery of the grounds and occasions for their many 
changes of meaning. Thus, sharp refers primarily to any solid material brought 
to a, point or to an edge; then to any liquid which has a keen taste, as vinegar ; 
then to a penetrating wind or any pungent odor;, and so on to sharp words, 
sharp pain, sharp senses, sharp intellect, sharp contr overs')/, etc., etc. 

845. Words chosen for figurative use are subject to 
various restrictions. 

1. The word in its literal meaning must have all the marks which 
characterize good usage (836). 

2. The literal meaning must be in every way compatible with the 
figurative, and the latter must be more impressive than if expressed 
literally. 

3. The attributives which would properly characterize the figurative 
application must not be applied to the word in its literal meaning; 
neither should different figures be employed for the same thing in the 
same sentence. 



Sources and Uses of Figures. 

846. Figures arise chiefly from the idea of resemblance, 
but partly from that of contiguity and partly from that of 
contrast. 

847. To secure clearness of thought and elevation of 
feeling, the figurative meaning must be easily apprehended. 

(a.) The accompanying circumstances must not be such as to divert attention; 
the figure must be impressive, but neither extravagant nor trite. 
22 



254 FIGURES IN THE USE OF WORDS. 



Figures in the Use of Words. 

848. A simile is a formal comparison introduced by like 
as or so as. 

Ex. — He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of waters. As in a range 
of equidistant columns the farthest off look the closest, so the conspicuous objects 
of the past seem more thickly clustered the more remote they are. 

849. Caution. For rhetorical effect never draw similes 
from objects which have too near or too remote a resem- 
blance, or from those with which the mass of readers are 
unacquainted. 

(a.) To compare Rome with Athens, or Philip with Alexander, may be well 
for logical purposes, but not for rhetorical. But when Philip is compared with 
a tornado or a thunderbolt, the effect is something more than mere clearness of 
thoxight. When the comparison, from its remoteness or strangeness, requires a 
pause, its effect is lost. 

850. A metaphor is a comparison implied in the word 
itself. 

Ex. — Thy word is a lamp to my feet. Age is the sunset of life ; youth the 
morning of life. So, to bridle the tongue, to storm a city, to clear the mists from 
one's thoughts. 

851. The metaphor aids in giving to abstract thought 
an effect due to concrete forms. 

(a.) Thus, age becomes a sunset, truth a shield, adversity a cup. As metaphors 
resemble similes, being only abbreviated forms of the same, similar cautions 
should be observed in respect to the one as to the other. 

852. The allegory is a continued metaphor, forming a 
kind of parable or fable. 

Ex. — The Pilgrim's Progress, the Eightieth Psalm, are good examples. 

853. Personification attributes to inanimate objects some 
of the qualities of living beings. 



FIGURES IN THE USE OF WORDS. 255 

Ex. — The sea saw it, and fled. The mountains skipped like rams. The sky 
saddens with the gathered storm. Earth felt the wound. Put on thy strength, 
Zion. 

(a.) In this figure the mind conceives of a resemblance, and applies the word 
accordingly. It differs from vision, which represents imagined objects as present, 
but acting and moving in their real characters. Sometimes both are united, as 
in, — 

See lofty Lebanon his head advance, 

See nodding forests on the mountain dance. 

(b.) Personification appears in its lowest degree when we attribute some of 
the properties or qualities of living beings to inanimate objects, as when we 
speak of the angry winds or the idle waves ; in a higher degree when we speak 
of inanimate objects as acting like living beings: " The trees of the field shall 
clap their hands;" in the highest degree when we combine it with apostrophe 
and address it as having intelligence : " Death, where is thy sting \" " thou 
sword of the Lord, how long will it be ere thou be quiet ?" 

854. Synecdoche is the using of a part for the whole or 
of the whole for a part. 

Ex. — I was ordered to call all hands. They sought his blood. How beautiful 
upon the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings ! So, A decree 
that all the world (Roman empire) should be taxed. 

(a.) By this figure a person is named from some peculiarity of body or mind, 
or of the place of his abode ; as, the hunchback, the Tempter, the Stagirite. Some- 
times a quality is attributed, not to its real object, but to something associated 
with it: it is then called a transferred epithet; as, A giddy height; an idle day; 
thrifty years ; sleepless nights. Here the mind is not guided by resemblance, but 
by association arising out of the contiguity of the objects or qualities. 

855. Metonomy is a change of name. 

Ex. — To address the chair (president). To submit to the crown. To be 
annoyed with red tape. 

(a.) Thus, we have the instrument for the agent; as, the arbitration of the 
sword. The container for the thing contained; as, to smite the city; to become 
a slave to the bottle; to have a long purse; the effect for the cause; as, bring 
down gray hairs to the grave. 

856. Antithesis is the placing of contrary or opposite 
objects in contrast. 



256 FIGURES IN THE USE OF WORDS. 

Ex. — Old men for counsel, young men for zoar. Immortal, though no more; 
though fallen, great. To be a blessing, not a curse. 

(a.) As every attribute and every statement may have its contrast, it is not 
required for effect that an explicit statement of it should be made, except in case 
the thought can thereby be made clearer or the effect heightened. 

857. Hyperbole is the magnifying or the diminishing of 
objects beyond their natural bounds. 

Ex. — Sivift as lightning. Waves running mountain high. Hills of slain. 

(a.) The effect of hyperbole depends in no small degree upon the feelings of 
the hearer. If his fear, wonder, curiosity, or sense of the ludicrous is sufficiently 
aroused, the figure may not only be tolerated, but may heighten the effect. 

858. Irony is the use of a word for its opposite. It 
ridicules an object under the pretence of praising it. 

Ex. — No doubt ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you. 

(a.) An effect similar to that of irony is often produced by the rhetorical 
device of innuendo or insinuation. It gives all the point of direct statement to 
criticism or vituperation, without its harshness, as when one declines to say a 
harsh thing, but yet in some way suggests it. It was said of Camden, the anti- 
quarian, " He had a number of coins of the Roman emperors, and a good momy 
more of the later English kings." Sarcasm derives its chief sting from disguised 
vituperation under the figures of innuendo and irony. 

859. Epigram is a conflict between the form and the real 
meaning of an expression. 

Ex.— The child is father to the man. Summer has set in with its usual severity. 
When you have nothing to say, say it. The farmer killed his ox to save it. 

(a. ) In all these examples there is an obvious meaning growing out of the 
seeming contradictions. 

860. Apostrophe is a turning away from the subject to 
address some other person or thing as if it were present. 

Ex. — " my son Absalom, my son. my son Absalom! would God I had died 
for thee, Absalom, my son, my son !" 

(a.) In apostrophe the dead are often addressed as if living, the absent as if 
present, the inanimate as if animate. 



FIGURES IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 257 

Figures in the Construction of Sentences. 

861. Ellipsis is the omission of words needed to com- 
plete the construction, but not needed to express the 
meaning. 

Ex. — Semiramis built Babylon ; Dido [built] Carthage ; and Romulus [built] 
Rome. 

862. Climax is a series of members in a sentence each 
rising in importance above the preceding. 

Ex. — It is an outrage to bind a Roman citizen ; to scourge him is an atrocious 
crime: to put him to death is almost a parricide ; but to CRUCIFY him — what 
shall I call it ? 

863. Erotesis is the construction of a sentence in the 
interrogative form to heighten the effect of an intended 
affirmation. 

Ex. — Are we formed with a passionate longing for immortality, and yet 
destined to perish after this short period of existence ? 

(a.) This kind of sentence is often used for appeal when a speaker wishes to 
intimate his opinion, but does not choose to affirm it. When he intends to 
affirm it, he uses a negative in the question ; when he intends to deny it, he 
omits the negative, as in the example above. 

864-. Ecphonesis is the inverted or otherwise peculiar 
construction of a sentence to express strong feeling. 

Ex. — Would that the principle of that faith which we have believed, and which 
we prize, were also hers ! How are the mighty fallen ! How vain ! How un- 
availing ! 

865. Inversion is a departure from the ordinary arrange- 
ment to heighten the effect. 

Ex.— Of vices, impurity is the most detestable. Great is the Lord. Him 
declare I unto you. 

(a.) To these may be added that peculiar construction called the parallel con- 
struction; also that called the balance (see 891. b). 

(b.) Let it not be supposed that the preceding are all the figures. These are the 
most important. Others will he noticed as the studpnt shall examine extended 
works on Rhetorio. (For figures of Etymology and figures of Syntax see Greene's 
English Grammar, pages WO, 291 ) 
22* 



258 EXERCISES IN THE USE OF FIGURES. 

Exercises in tlie Use of Figures. 

866. Name the figures employed in the following examples : — 

A hard heart. A clear intellect. Thy word is a lamp to my feet. 
I am the vine, ye are the branches. The angry sea. All nature 
smiled. Charity should open her eyes as well as her hands. If all the 
sucks in the world were made into pens, the heavens into paper, and 
the sea into ink, they could not furnish material sufficient to describe 
the least part of your perfections. We could not see the woods for the 
trees. He is tied to his bottle. The kettle boils. He drank several 
glasses. For Brutus is an honorable man ! 

Great hierarch, tell thou the silent sky, 
And tell the stars, and tell yon rising sun, 
" Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God !" 

Coleridge's Address to Mont Blanc. 

As these busts in the block of marble, so does oar individual fate 
exist in the limestone of time. We fancy that we carve it out, but ns 
ultimate shape is prior to all our action. — Hawthorne. 

Wave, Munich ! all thy banners wave ! 

And charge with all thy chivalry ! — Campbell. 

Your Dulcinea del Toboso is peerless, of course. And he sends you 
as his chamberlain ! What a proud embassy ! Monsieur, I make you 
my compliments in your new place. — Thackeray. 

That was all ! And yet through the gloom and the light 
The fate of a nation was riding that night. — Longfellow. 

Ashamed to toil art thou? Ashamed of thy dingy workshop and 
dusty labor field ; of thy hard hand, scarred with service more honor- 
able than that of war, of thy soiled and weather-stained garments, on 
which mother Nature has embroidered, 'mid fire and steam, her own 
heraldic honors ? — Carlyle. 

A hunted wanderer on the wild, 

On foreign shores a man exiled ; 

Disowned, deserted, and distressed, — 

I bless thee, and thou shalt be blessed. — Scott. 

Through the shadow of the globe we sweep into the younger day : 
Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay. — Tennyson. 



EXERCISES IN THE USE OF FIGURES. 259 

Ye living flowers, that skirt the eternal frost ! 

Ye wild goats, sporting round the eagle's nest ! 

Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain-storm ! 

Ye lightnings, the dread arrows of the clouds ! 

Ye signs and wonders of the elements ! 

Utter forth " God !" and fill the hills with praise ! — Coleridge. 

867. Employ the following words figuratively in sentences 
of your own, or point them out in any which you can select : — 

1. As similes : — lamb, river, house, tree, vapor, evening, dew, 
ocean, mountain. 

Ex. — He is brought as a lamb to the slaughter. 

2. As metaphors : — sunset, moon, light, sun, shepherd, flock, door, 
father, mother. 

Ex. — Old age is the sunset of life. 

3. As allegories : — the vine, grapes. Christian life. Human life. 
The spider and the fly. 

Select any allegory founded on the above. 

4. By way of personification : — sing, rejoice, run, star, war, peace, 
sleep. 

Ex. — "When the morning stars sang together. 

5. By way of synecdoche : — meat, Croesus, creature ; any word or 
phrase, as an euphemism for death, murdered, steal, lie, swear. 

Ex. — And he commanded to give her meat (food). But some are fallen asleep. 

6. By way of metonomy : — the sceptre, the mitre, the ermine, the 
purple, a good table, the cup, gray hairs, Moses and the prophets, 
Bacchus, Mars, Neptune, glittering steel, admiration. 

Ex. — Vocal music was my admiration. 

868. Select any example of the remaining figures. 

Suggestion. — No one can recognize and appreciate figures from the mere 
definitions of them. He must acquire the habit of distinguishing them as we 
read an author. To establish this habit it is a good plan to read a section or a 
page for the purpose of detecting and analyzing the several figures. A review of 
the same will bring them readily to mind. A continuance of this practice will 
at length enable us to appreciate them as we read an author for the first time. 



SECTION IV. 
EFFECTIVENESS AS DEPENDING ON SENTENCES. 

Sentences as Expressions of Thought and Feeling. 

869. Sentences, like the words which give them charac- 
ter, may be employed to express abstract thought, or 
that belonging especially to science; concrete thought, or 
that presented with imagery; impassioned thought, or that 
accompanied with strong emotion. 

Ex. — A confederation is a union, more or less complete, of two or more states 
which before were independent. 

The low of herds 

Blends with the rustling of the heavy grain 

Over the dark brown furrows. 

They will cry in the last accents of despair, Oh for a Washington, an Adams, 
a Jefferson ! 

The Sentence a Development rather than a 
Composition. 

870. To become effective, the sentence must not be a 
composition of parts consciously put together, but a spon- 
taneous development of the subject as a germ of the entire 
thought. 

(a.) In animated conversation, or in any form of earnest utterance, no one is 
directly conscious of composing sentences. We never think of parts, which by 
composition we afterward bring into one whole. The thought presents itself at 
first as if concentrated in the subject itself, and the sentence, which follows is 
a simple unfolding of what the mind thus grasps by a single intuition ; it seems 
to make itself. No one can suppose that Campbell thought first of " proud," then 
of " Cumberland," then of " prancing," then of " insulting the slain," and finally 
grouped all these into — 

"Proud Cumberland prances, insulting the slain." 
Rather did he, at a single glance, see Cumberland himself, as proud, prancing 
260 



QUALITIES OF THE SENTENCE— STYLE. 261 

and insulting the slain, and the sentence was an instant development of this one 
view. This .development, hy a natural connection, suggested the nest: 

" And their hoof-beaten bosoms were trod to the plain." 

Thus are unfolded, germ after germ, in the order of some natural sequence, the 
successive sentences of a discourse. In extemporaneous speaking language 
comes to us as we pass from thought to thought, whereas in speaking from 
memory it is recalled often with an embarrassing effort. 

(b.) If it be said that over this creating or developing power the critical 
faculty must sooner or later be exercised, that at some time the sentence must be 
subjected to the proper tests, this is true; but the important question arises, 
When shall we become the critics of our own sentences? In the heat of 
developing them, or after the excitement has passed away ? 

In writing it may be comparatively easy to separate the two processes, but in 
speaking, if both go on at all, they must go together ; the choice of the words 
and the formation of sentences must take place with little or no time for 
deliberation. In respect to these two processes, the habits of speakers and 
writers are unquestionably very different. Some acquire the power of exer- 
cising a kind of unconscious or half-conscious supervision over their language 
while forming their sentences; whereas others abandon themselves to the 
current of their thoughts, and make thoir criticisms afterward. The latter 
usually write with the greatest power. Three questions, at one time or another, 
must be answered : Is the sentence logically correct; that is, is it right in respect 
to thought f Is it grammatically correct; that is. is it right in respect to ex- 
pression f Is it rhetorically correct; that is. is it right in respect to the end in 
view and the most effective way of accomplishing it? 



Qualities of the Sentence. — Style. 

871. Style is the particular manner in which one ex- 
presses his thoughts and feelings. 

(a.) According to Buffon. " style is the man himself" — the man, of course, as 
seen in his language. But the style of the same man must vary with the kind 
of thoughts which he expresses. In abstract thought there is comparatively 
little opportunity for individuality of style. The terms are, for the most part, 
fixed, and the sentences admit little else than the fundamental properties of 
simplicity and clearness — properties common to all good writing. Distinctive 
style appears most, clearly in the language of thought and feeling. As Matthew 
Arnold says, " If the object be one to inspire emotion, the language of figure 
and feeling will satisfy us better about it, will cover more of what we seek to 
express than the language of literal fact and science; the language of science 
about it will fall belovj xchat me feel to be the truth." He who would form an 
agreeable style must aim to give expression to feeling as well as thought. He 



262 QUALITIES OF THE SENTENCE- STYLE. 

must seek to intensify his thoughts and present them in the most interesting 
and impressive manner. 

872. The preceding view of the sentence explains what 
is meant by unity, — one germ unfolded into one thought. 

(a.) A simple sentence is necessarily one thought; and though a complex sen- 
tence may contain several different clauses, or developed germs, one. only is 
prominent; all the others are so subordinated to it as to become parts of it. If 
properly constructed, the complex sentence, even when it contains several differ- 
ent subjects, is truly one thought. The compound sentence is really two or more 
simple or complex sentences, and hence two or more thoughts united. Unity 
here requires that the thoughts shall coalesce, or shall be so intimately related 
as to give one impression. 

(b.) Unity does not forbid the combination of several subjects into one con- 
sistent compound subject. It does not forbid a similar combination of predi- 
cates. It allows any proper enlargement of the subject or of the predicate. It 
is compatible with the introduction of any reasonable number of subordinate 
clauses, provided they do not contain irrelevant matter, and the whole is a 
harmonious development of one general thought. 

Ex. — " No effeminate nobility crowded into the dark and austere ranks of 
the pilgrims; no Carr nor Villiers would lead on the ill-provided band of the 
despised Puritans; no well-endowed clergy were on the alert to quit their 
cathedral, and set up a pompous hierarchy in the frozen wilderness; no craving 
governors were anxious to be sent over to our cheerless El Dorados of ice and 
of snow; no, they could not say they had encouraged, patronized, or helped the 
pilgrims ; their own cares, their own labors, their own counsels, their own blood, 
contrived all, achieved all, sealed all." — Everett. 

Here we have a long sentence, containing many subjects, yet one thought per- 
vades the whole Compare with this Dr. Blair's example of the want of unity: 
"After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where /was welcomed by all 
my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." Here are four differ- 
ent subjects. There is apparently no germ out of which the whole springs. A 
little thought, however, will convince any one that there is a connection in the 
thoughts, and that they ought to spring from a single source. This will appear 
the moment we take /as the subject: "After coming to anchor, I was put on 
shore, where I was welcomed by all my friends, and received with the greatest 
kindness." 

(c.) Unity forbids the introduction into the same sentence of incongruous 
matter; as, "The rocks were precipitous, and the horse is a noble animal;' 
" The march [of the Greeks] was through an uncultivated country, whose savage 
inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, 
whose flesh was rank and unsavory by reason of their continually feeding upon 
sea-fish." 



QUALITIES OF THE SENTENCE—STYLE. 26o 

873. The unity of the sentence usually renders specially 
•ominent the principal subject, the principal predicate, or 
ith. 



(a.) Thus in the sentence already quoted from Campbell, "Cumberland" 
occupies the principal place, and in respect to the attributes, though any one of 
them might have been the predicate, it suited the purpose of the poet to give the 
place of honor to " prancing," and only subordinate positions to the others. It 
is a mark of the highest skill when a writer employs the subsidiary parts in su^h 
a way as to give proper shading to the principal parts, and at the same time to 
hold the latter unobscured, as the chief representatives of the entire thought. 
Thus, Irving, in order to depress the accompanying circumstances of the royal 
poet's first sight of " the lovely Lady Jane," introduces them as mere incidents. 
" In the midst of his musing, as he casts his eye downward, he beholds ' the 
fairest and the freshest young fioure' that ever he had seen." A less skilful 
writer would as likely have said, " He is in the midst of his musing ; then he casts 
bis eye downward and beholds, etc." It should be observed that the principal 
subject is not always the grammatical subject. In the example above the gram- 
matical object holds the prominent position. 

874. In the arrangement of the parts, the principal 
subject should occupy a prominent position. 

(a.) Thi-i position may be at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the 
sentence. 

Ex. — " The departure of the Lady Jane from the garden puts an end to this- 
transient riot of the heart."— Irving. The example above, from the same author, 
illustrates the middle position of the principal subject after the adverbial phrase 
and clause. This position is often secured for it by introducing the sentence 
with, "It is," "there is," or by some adverbial word, phrase, clause, or parti- 
cipial construction. " There was a man sent from God." " It is righteousness 
that exalts a people." At the end of the sentence the subject receives a special 
emphasis: " On whatever side we contemplate Homer, what principally strikes 
US is his wonderful invention." 

875. A prominent position should also be given to the 
principal predicate. 

(a.) In the grammatical order of the parts the subject precedes the predicate, 
and the verb precedes the attribute or the object. The adjective precedes the 
noun which it modifies. Adjective and adverbial phrases and clauses usually 
follow the modified word. 

876. By an inversion of the grammatical order the place 



264 Q UALITIES REQ HIRED FOR THO UQHT ESPECIALLY. 

of the subject or of the predicate may be changed, and 
the effectiveness of the expression may often be improved. 

(a.) The predicate may come first; as, " Great is the Lord;" "Blessed are the 
peacemakers." The object may take the emphatic position; as, " Whom, there- 
lore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." So also may the adverb; 
as, " Verily I have cleansed my heart in vain ;" " Not every one that saith unto 
me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven." The adverbial phrase 
or clause and the participial construction is often placed first, ; as, "At the 
bottom of this document was scrawled, in the first place, a rude sketch of a cock's 
head and comb." " Whither I go, ye cannot come." 



Qualities Required for Thought Especially. 

877. The first quality which logic especially, and rhetoric 
always, demands is simplicity. 

(a.) This is that quality by which the sentence is easily understood. It means 
that plainness of expression which renders the thought intelligible; and is 
opposed to abstruseness. It pertains both to terms and to structure. For the 
relative simplicity of terms see 823, 824, 825. 

878. Simplicity of structure means that combination and 
arrangement of parts which is most easily understood. 

(a.) These two attributes may both be found in the same sentence; as, " If a 
son shall ask bread of any of you that is a father, will he give him a stone?" 
Or we may have abstruse terms combined in a simple structure ; as, " Matter is 
the permanent possibility of sensation" — /. S. Mill; or simple terms in a com- 
plicated structure; as, " It is not to be denied that a high degree of beauty does 
not lie in'simple forms." 

879. The second quality which pertains to thought is 
clearness, or that property by which the one thought 
intended, and no other, is expressed by the sentence. 

(a.) It is opposed to inaccuracy, ambiguity, vagueness, and obscurity. It 
involves simplicity, and comprehends much more. 

880. Clearness is endangered, — 
1. By grammatical inaccuracies. 

Ex. — " The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown." — Hume. 



RHETORICAL QUALITIES. 265 

"One of you have stolen my money.'' " That ingenious nation who have done 
so much honor to modern literature possesses in an eminent degree the talent of 
narration." — Blair. 

(a.) The following have a false reference of the participle : " Viewing them 
separately.different emotions are produced." — Karnes. " But leaving this doubtful, 
another objection occurs." 

(b.) The following have an incorrect use of the preposition : " These may he 
carried on progressively above any assignable limits." " The plan of education is 
very different to the one pursued in the sister country." 

2. By an ambiguous or obscure use of words either in respect to 
meaning or arrangement. 

Ex. — In consequence of bad arrangement or otherwise: "And seeing dreams 
are caused by the distemper of the inward parts of the body." " The custards 
were in cups which we ate." " Found, a needle by a child, which had no eye." 

Ex. — From ambiguity of meaning : " Her appearance at that time was in her 
favor." " Is it her coming into view? or her aspect and general demeanor?" 
Or, from the near recurrence of the same word, with different meanings: "It 
will be good for him if he can make good his promise." 



Bhetorical Qualities, or those which give Special Effect. 

881. The qualities which rhetoric especially requires are, 
in addition to the foregoing, strength and harmony. 

882. Strength is that quality which renders language 
forcible and impressive. 

(a.) The words express more than thought; they appeal to the imagination 
and the sensibilities, presenting objects characterized (827. a) by those attributes 
which enkindle the gentler sentiments, or awaken the strongest emotions. The 
sentences also are so constructed as to harmonize with these higher requisites. 
In other words, strength in its fulness requires that the words themselves shall 
be the most forcible, that their number shall be the least possible, provided they 
express the thought with clearness and precision, that their arrangement in the 
sentence shall be such as to produce the strongest impression. 

883. The attributes which tend to strength are, — 

1. Conciseness, or the avoiding of needless fulness. The redun- 
dancy may take the form of repetition ; that is, the use of the same 
words for the same thought ; as, " Geometry treats of lines, geometry 
treats of surfaces, and geometry treats of volumes;" corrected by the 
23 



266 RHETORICAL QUALITIES. 

figure of ellipsis, " Geometry treats of lines, surfaces, and volumes ;" 
or of tautology ; that is, the use of different words for the same 
thought; as, " magnanimity and greatness of mind;" "the universal 
love and esteem of all mankind;'" corrected by striking out the need- 
less words; or pleonasm, namely, the introduction of superfluous 
words : " I went home full of a great many serious reflections ;" " They 
returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth;'' 
here, again, strike out the needless words in italics; or of circum- 
locution, the use of a number of words for a thought, instead of a single 
term ; as, " Sounds formed by the lips are incapable of prolongation" = 
"Labials are short;" or, finally, of prolixity; that is, an unnecessary 
amplification or accumulation of circumstances. The paraphrase 
affords a good illustration of this offence against strength. 

Against all these requisites for conciseness, there may be instances 
in which, — 

(a.) The demands of clearness may justify great fulness, even repetition, 
and, — 

(b.) The laws of effectiveness often require it. Thus, if we wish to call atten- 
tion to particulars, the conjunction may be repeated with good effect: "The 
army was composed of Grecians, and Carians, and Lycians, and Phrygians." 

2. Vivacity, or that property by which the thought is presented 
with animation, and often with impressive imagery. 

(a.) This property of the sentence depends mainly upon personal qualities of 
the writer. Some men naturally conceive truths in individual forms; and these 
appear as grave or gay, attractive or repulsive, according to the character or 
moods of the writer. It often shows itself in the use of figures, and not unfre- 
quently in the form of the dialogue or drama. The words belong to the class 
called vivid or picturesque. This quality is fitted to appeal to the imagination 
and awaken the sensibilities. 



884. Strong feeling leads, — 

1. To abbreviation. 

(a.) Thus, with a moderate degree of feeling, we would say, " That is a strange 
proceeding ;" with stronger feeling, " How strange !" with still stronger, 
"Strange!" 

2. To an inverted arrangement. 

(a.) Thus, instead of " The Lord is great," we have the more forcible order, 
" Great is the Lord." In like manner, " Blessed are the poor in spirit;" : ' Just 
"and holy are all his ways;" " All these, things will 1 give thee if thou wilt fall 



RHETORICAL QUALITIES. 267 

down and worship me ;" " Verily, verily, I say unto you;" "After this I beheld, 
until they were come into the land of Beulah;" " Here, because they were weary, 
they betook themselves a while to rest." 

3. To the use of excessive terms or bold figures. 

(a.) As when an injured party calls a cheat or a deceiver a cut-throat or a 
murderer, or as when one speaks of the waves as running mountain-high, or of 
a heavy fall of rain as a perfect deluge. 

885. Harmony has regard to the music of language. 

(a.) The laws of harmony require an adaptation of sounds to one another, 
and of the language to the sentiment. The former is more properly called 
melody, the latter, harmony. 

886. The laws of melody require us to avoid a succession 
of sounds which are difficult of pronunciation, and conse- 
quently disagreeable to the hearer. 

(a.) The student must be guided mainly by his ear in selecting and combining 
such words as will follow one another with an agreeable effect. Quintilian 
says, " Nothing is likely to reach the heart which stumbles at the threshold by 
offending the ear." The following passages show a marked difference in respect 
to the succession of sounds : — 

" And at night so cloudless and so still ! Not a voice of living 
thing, not a whisper of leaf or waving bough, not a breath of wind, not 
a sound upon the earth nor in the air ! And overhead bends the blue 
sky, dewy and soft, and radiant with innumerable stars, like the 
inverted bell of some blue flower sprinkled with golden dust and 
breathing fragrance." 

" He (Mirabeau) had the indisputablest ideas ; but then his style ! 
In very truth it is the strangest of styles, though one of the richest — 
style full of originality, picturesqueness, sunny vigor, but all cased 
and slated over threefold in metaphor and trope, distracted into 
tortuosities, dislocations, starting out into crotchets, cramp-turns, 
quaintness, and hidden satire." 

887. Harmony has reference to a combination of parts, 

rather than a succession of sounds. 

(a.) It refers to the support which the language and the subject afford each 
other. 

(b.) A pleasing effect is given, — 



268 RHETORICAL CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

1. When the language and the sense respond to each other, as in 
crash, buzz, hiss, hum, whizz. Thus the noise of falling timber is 
happily described in the following lines : — 

" Deep-echoing groan the thickets brown, 
Then rustling, crackling, crashing, thunder down." 

2. When movements slow or quick are described by words which 
correspond, as in the following lines from Pope : — 

" When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, 
The line too labors, and the words move slow." 

Mark the contrast in uttering the following : — 
" Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain, 
Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the main." 

3. When anything huge or vast is described by a slow or labored 
movement in the utterance, as in the first of the following lines from 
Scott's Marmion : — 

"Volumed, and vast, and rolling far, 
The cloud enveloped Scotland's war." 

(c.) In general a refined taste is offended whenever the language is not in 
keeping with the thought and sentiment (820). 



Rhetorical Classification of Sentences. 

888. Eegarded rhetorically, sentences are periodic, loose, 
short, long, or balanced. 

889. A sentence is, — 

1. Periodic, when the meaning is suspended until the close. 

2. Loose, when the meaning would be complete at two or more 
places. 

Ex.— "When, at length, Hyder Ali found that he had to do with men who 
either would sign no convention or whom no treaty or no signature could bind, 
and who were the determined enemies of human intercourse itself, he decreed to 
make the country possessed by these incorrigible and predestinated criminals a 
memorable example to mankind."— Burke. "The hour drew near; all hope 
was over, and Monmouth had passed from pusillanimous fear to the apathy of 
despair." — Macaulay. 



RHETORICAL CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 269 

(a.) In the first example there is no place where the meaning would be com- 
plete till we reach the end. In the second we might stop at " near/' " over,'' or 
at the close. In the first sentence of Paradise Lost, we should have a period if 
we stopped at " heavenly muse;" but continued as it is to "in prose or rhyme," 
it becomes a loose sentence. Periodic sentences should be so interspersed among 
loose as to give a pleasing variety. The tendency of modern writers is to the 
shorter forms of the period. 

890. A sentence is called, — 

1. Short, when, for effect, it contains a curt, incisive, and oftentimes 
abrupt statement. 

2. Long, when it assumes the more stately and expanded form 
which admits of the oratorical cadence, or which may rise by the 
several steps of the climax. 

Ex. — " The powerful speaker (Bunker Hill Monument) stands motionless 
before us. It is a plain shaft. It bears no inscriptions., fronting to the rising 
sun, from which the future antiquarian shall wipe the dust. Nor does the rising 
sun cause tones of music to issue from its summit. But at the rising of the 
sun and the setting of the sun, in the blaze of noonday and beneath the milder 
effulgence of lunar light, it looks, it speaks, it acts to the full comprehension of 
every American mind, and the awakening of enthusiasm in every American 
heart." — Webster. Here mark the contrast between the last sentence and the 
preceding ones. 

891. A sentence is balanced when the clauses show a 
sameness of structure, but usually a pointed difference, or 
a contrast in meaning. 

Ex. — " In peace, children bury their parents ; in war, parents bury their 
children." "Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the better artist; in the 
one we most admire the man, in the other, the work." — Pope. " The style 
of Dryden is capricious and varied, that of Pope is cautious and uniform.'" — 
Johnson. 

(a.) Sometimes the effect is heightened by a transposition of terms: as, " When 
we meet an apparent error in a good author, we are to presume ourselves ignor- 
ant of his understanding until we are certain that we understand his ignorance." 
Sometimes a fine effect is produced by a transposition of terms ; as, " A juggler is 
a wit in things, and a wit is a juggler in words;" and is heightened when 
there is a sameness of sound ; as, " In religion whatever is new is not true, and 
whatever is true is not new." 

(b.) The effect of the balance is heightened by antithesis: "If you wish to 
enrich a person, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires." 
23* 



270 CLASSIFICATION AND QUALITIES OF SENTENCES. 

Sometimes the antithesis is in stating the same truth from opposite sides; as, 
" Light cheers, darkness depresses;" " A wise son maketh a glad father, but a 
foolish son is a heaviness to his mother." Akin to this is what is called parallel 
construction ; as, " The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation, the 
fool, when he gains other people's," not " when he recommends himself to the 
applause of others." 



Exercises upon the Classification and Qualities of 
Sentences. 

892. In the following examples, tell which are periodic, 
which are loose, which are long, which are short, and which 
are balanced, and specify their qualities. 

Ex.— First sentence, " Neither military nor civil pomp was want- 
ingP 

Sentence. — Periodic, short, balanced in the subject. 
Qualities. — Concise and clear; in respect to unity, correct 
Arrangement. — Grammatical order. 
Words. — Literal, well chosen. 

Neither military nor civil pomp was wanting. The avenues were 
lined with grenadiers. The streets were kept clear by cavalry. The 
peers, robed in gold and ermine, were marshalled by heralds under the 
garter king-at-arms. The judges, in their vestments of state, attend- 
ed to give advice on points of law. Near a hundred and seventy 
lords, three-fourths of the upper house as the upper house then 
was, walked in solemn order from their usual place of assembling 
to the tribunal. — Macaulay. 

The young are slaves to novelty, the old to custom. 

He raised a mortal to the skies, 
She drew an angel down. 

There is no office higher than that of a teacher of youth ; for there 
is nothing on earth so precious to the mind, soul, and character. No 
office should be regarded with greater respect. The first minds in the 
community should be encouraged to assume it. — Charming. 

Must I wound his ear with the news of your revolt ; must he hear 
from me that neither the soldiers raised by himself nor the veterans 
who fought under him are willing to own his authority ; must he be 



CLASSES AND QUALITIES OF THE SENTENCE. 271 

told that neither dismissions from the service nor money lavishly 
granted can appease the fury of ungrateful men ; must I inform him 
that here centurions are murdered; that, in this camp, the tribunes 
are driven from their posts ; that here the ambassadors of Rome are 
detained as prisoners ; that the entrenchments present a scene of 
slaughter ; that rivers are discolored with our blood ; and that a Roman 
general leads a precarious life, at the mercy of men inflamed with epi- 
demic madness ? 

The polish of eighteen centuries ago, as yet but half rubbed off, and 
the heat of to-day's sunshine, lingering into the night, seem almost 
equally ephemeral in relation to it (this ancient shaft). — Hawthorne. 



Exercises upon the Classes and Qualities of the 
Sentence. 

893. Examine the following sentences in respect to sim- 
plicity and clearness, and make corrections wherever there 
are errors. 

Vice stings us in our pleasures, but virtue consoles us in our pains. 
The man who came in laughing with a red moustache was a universal 
favorite. They were summoned occasionally by their kings, when 
compelled by their wants and by their fears to have recourse to their 
aid. The science of the mathematics performs more than it promises, 
but the science of metaphysics promises more than it performs. They 
expect the overthrow of all the old traditions of a race whose religion, 
customs, and laws run from time immemorial in the twinkling of an 
eye. 

894. Examine the following in respect to strength and har- 
mony, and show by what modifications they may be improved. 

A tall man whom no one of us had seen ever before, of a reverend 
appearance, was in the midst of us. Suddenly, as we agitated the 
resolution hastily of retreating. A modern newspaper statement, 
though probably true, would be laughed at if quoted in a book as 
testimony, but the letter of a court gossip is thought good historical 
evidence if written some centuries ago. If I mistake not, I think 
that William Penn met the savages personally himself, and they had a 
mutual exchange of good feelings with each other. No experiences 



272 HINTS AND PRACTICAL CAUTIONS. 

which we have ever experienced are so hard to bear as those brought 
upon us by neglecting what we ought not to have neglected. Laws 
without arms would give us not liberty, but licentiousness ; and arms 
which are not backed up by a system of legal enactments would pro- 
duce, not subjection, but slavery. The ascent to the summit was steep, 
and our party, which consisted of myself, my friend, and his two 
daughters, one of whom insisted upon taking with her her favorite 
poodle, which must be carried in arms, was detained for a considerable 
time. 

Hints and Practical Cautions. 

895. As a general rule, two elements which are con- 
nected in thought should be placed near each other. 

896. In case of a possibility of doubt from the use of 

an ambiguous term, either explain it or choose a better. 

897. In case of ambiguity or obscurity from the arrange- 
ment of the parts, rearrange and, if need be, recast the 
sentence. 

898. For long and involved sentences reconstruct by 
breaking into two or more. 

899. Whenever a sentence contains many full clauses, 
contract by abridging those which are least important. 

900. As a general rule, never use the same word or a 
derivative from the same root in the same sentence ; but 
in balanced sentences or in parallel constructions never 
avoid the same word for the sake of variety of language. 

Ex. — " Force was resisted by force, valor opposed by valor, and art encountered 
or eluded by similar address" (rather "by art"). — Gillies. 

901. To form a good style, read much, think with dis- 
crimination, intensify your thoughts with the earnestness 



GENERAL EXERCISES IN COMPLETE ANALYSIS. 273 

of strong convictions and with the glow of a vivid imagi- 
nation, and never remit your practice of writing. 

902. In the act of writing keep constantly before you 
your main purpose, as well as the character and circum- 
stances of those who are to be your hearers or readers, 
and then let sentence after sentence flow as the sponta- 
neous outgrowth of thought or feeling. 

903. Subject yourself to two widely different processes, 
the one for criticism and linguistic culture, the other for 
the most energetic expression of thought and feeling. 

904. If you find in yourself a tendency to fall into a 
stereotyped mode of embodying your thoughts and of 
forming your sentences, read carefully some good author ; 
then from memory reproduce any favorite passage, and 
compare your own expressions with his and mark the 
differences. 

905. Never attempt to write till you have organized 
your thoughts more or less completely. 

906. Study the art of producing effects by language, 
but never let the indications of art become apparent in 
your essays. Let the controlling power of thought and 
feeling absorb all signs of art. 



Methods and General Exercises in Complete Analysis. 

Suggestion. — It will not be best in every instance to carry out in detail a full 
grammatical, logical, and rhetorical analysis. But whenever peculiarities in 
any one of these departments are found, they should be carefully noticed. A 
variety of examples, it is hoped, may draw attention to those elements in the 
sentence which give life and spirit to language. 



274 SENTENCES EXPRESSING ABSTRACT THOUGHT. 

I. Sentences in which Abstract Thought Prevails. 

907. Ex. 1. — " We know that we are endued with capacities 
of action, of happiness and misery ; for we are conscious of 
acting, of enjoying pleasure and suffering pain." — Butler. 

1. Grammatically. — Sentence; compound, members joined by a 
causal conjunction ; first member complex, second simple, with com- 
pound phrase (see 536). 

2. Logically. — Sentence ; has the logical form, since it affirms a 
judgment; second member gives the logical reason (632) for the 
statement in the first. 

3. Rhetorically. — Sentence; loose, members, words, phrases, and 
clauses arranged in grammatical order; qualities of style, clear and 
concise ; as a whole, effective, since it accomplishes its end of express- 
ing thought without sentiment ; it contains no rhetorical device except 
the parallel construction in the phrases of the members of " action," 
" of acting," " of happiness," " of enjoying pleasure," etc. The principal 
words are abstracts, as they should be, all used literally. The word 
"for" would now be used instead of " of" after "capacities;" "endowed" 
instead of " endued." Compare this with the following from the same 
author. 

908. Ex. 2. — "For if it would be in a manner certain that 
we should survive death, provided it were certain that death 
would not be our destruction, it must be highly probable we 
shall survive it, if there be no ground to think death will be 
our destruction." — Butler. 

1. This sentence is grammatically complex, consisting of one princi- 
pal and seven subordinate clauses. It is a causal sentence, made co- 
ordinate with the preceding one in the paragraph by " for." 

2. Logically, it apparently affirms a conditional judgment, but there 
seems to be no advance in the thought ; it appears to affirm " if death 
does not take away our life, then it is certain we shall live after death." 
It does not clearly affirm the intended thought, whatever that may be. 

3. Rhetorically, it is a defective period, since we might stop at 
"survive it;" it could be made periodic by placing "we shall survive 



SENTENCES EXPRESSING ABSTRACT THOUGHT. 27 'o 

it" at the end. Style, exceedingly obscure, arising from the use of 
ambiguous and abstruse terms, and from a complicated structure 
(878. a). The principal clause is subject to two conditions arranged, 
one in the grammatical, the other in the rhetorical, order ; one source of 
the obscurity lies in their seeming identity ; another, in the doubtful 
meaning of "we," "our," "death," and "destruction." Does "we" 
(our) mean our whole being, physical, intellectual, and spiritual, or 
only our spiritual? Does "death" mean "annihilation," or only 
" dissolution," " separation " ? Does " destruction " mean the dissolution 
of the body, or the termination of the whole being? The context 
shows that the writer is supposing the possibility that some other 
agency than death may imperil our future existence ; as a whole, far 
from effective. Such sentences should be avoided. 

909. Ex. 3. — " What has truth or certainty to do with 
external existence more than with internal f" — Stoddart. 

This sentence is grammatically correct. It is also logically a true 
sentence, since, though in the form of an inquiry, it really declares the 
writer's judgment. Rhetorically, it is an effective sentence, strength- 
ened by the figure Erotesis, or interrogation, also by ellipsis in the last 
clause, "internal" for "internal existence." Here a sentence whose 
terms are abstracts is made to express not merely the writer's thought 
on a disputed point, but that feeling which accompanies strong 
convictions. 

910. Ex. 4.— "Oh, the depth of the riches both of the 
wisdom and knowledge of God! How unsearchable his 
judgments, and his ways past finding out I" — Paul. 

This is not a logical sentence, since it only intimates or implies a 
judgment. Its terms are abstract, yet by exclamation it utters the 
profoundest thoughts. As a rhetorical sentence, it is rendered effective 
both by the sublime conceptions which it embodies, and by the figura- 
tive form (ecphonesis) which it assumes. 

911. Analyze the following sentences, and explain them in 
respect to simplicity and clearness : — 

The sum of the three angles of a triangle is equal to two right 
angles. A thesis is a judgment proposed for discussion and proof. 



276 SENTENCES EXPRESSING CONCRETE THOUGHT. 

Astronomy has at once the beauty of poetry and the exactness of 
geometry (825. b). Brevity is the soul of wit. — Shakespeare. But the 
divine life reveals itself in right knowledge as well as in right affec- 
tions. — Dodge's Evidences. The only immortality which filled the culti- 
vated pagan mind, and monopolized its aspirations, was the immor- 
tality of fame. — Ibid. Reputation is often got without merit and lost 
without deserving. — Shakespeare. 

Of your philosophy you make no use, 

If you give place to accidental evils. — Ibid. 

912. Analyze the following, and point out any defects in 
respect to the proper qualities of a sentence. 

Thales was not only famous for his knowledge, but for his moral 
wisdom. In narration Homer is at all times concise, which renders 
him lively and agreeable. They were summoned occasionally by their 
kings, when compelled by their wants and by their fears to have 
recourse to their aid. The earl of Falmouth and Mr. Coventry were 
rivals who should have most influence with the duke, who loved the 
earl best, but thought the other the wiser man, who supported Peron, 
who disobliged all the courtiers, even against the earl, who, etc. (quoted 
by Angus). He bought in the cheapest market, and sold where he 
could get the most for his goods. By the time I had taken five bottles, 
I found myself completely cured, after having been brought so near to 
the gate of death, by means of your invaluable medicine. A man 
who has lost his eyesight has in one sense less consciousness than he 
had before. The truth is that error and truth are blended in their 
minds. The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation ; 
the fool, when he recommends himself to the applause of those about 
him. There may remain a suspicion that we overrate the greatness of 
his genius in the same manner as bodies appear more gigantic on 
account of their being disproportioned and misshapen. 



II. Sentences in which Concrete Thought Preyails. 

913. Ex. 1. — " Birmingham had not been thought of suffi- 
cient importance to send a member to Oliver s Parliament. 
Yet the manufacturers of Birmingham were already a strong 
and thriving race.'''' — Macanlay. 



SENTENCES EXPRESSING CONCRETE THOUGHT. 277 

These sentences are clear and well-constructed. The words have 
their ordinary meaning, presenting no images but those of common 
occurrence. The reader must realize Birmingham, Oliver, member of 
Parliament, manufacturers, and such attributes as are applied to them. 
There are no specially suggestive words. The construction of the 
sentences is simple and natural. They express thought, yet with that 
interest which is always awakened by an effort to realize the individual. 

914. Ex. 2. — " With most exemplary modesty, he speaks of 
the party to which he professes to have belonged himself as the 
true, pure, the only honest, patriotic party, derived by regular 
descent from father to son from the time of the virtuous 
Romans ! Spreading before us the family tree of political 
parties, he takes especial care to shoio himself snugly perched 
on a popular bough" — Webster. 

First sentence. — Grammatically, complex, containing one principal 
and one subordinate and one abridged clause (which was derived). 

Logically. The terms and the sentence express the thought intended, 
yet "most exemplary modesty" must be taken with its figurative 
meaning; and "true, pure," "only honest," "patriotic," as epithets 
expressing not his own but his opponent's thoughts. 

Rhetorically. Sentence effective, expressing strong feeling, periodic 
in structure ; qualities, clear, concise, strong ; arrangement, grammati- 
cal, with exception of the phrase "with most exemplary modesty ;" 
this is in the rhetorical order for effect ; words and phrases, vigorous 
and suggestive ; figures, irony in the use of " exemplary modesty." 

Second sentence. — Grammatically and logically, containing nothing 
peculiar. Rhetorically, rendered effective by the participial con- 
struction which introduces it, especially by the metaphor of the 
" family tree ;" metaphor sustained by " snugly perched" (as of a bird), 
but the effect is weakened by the attributive " popular," which applies 
to "party" rather than "bough" (see 845. 3). 

915. Ex. 3. — "He that studies boohs alone will know how 
things ought to be; and he that studies man will know how 
things are"— Col ton. 



278 SENTENCES EXPRESSING CONCRETE THOUGHT. 

This is both a loose and a balanced sentence (891. a), and presents a 
strong contrast between theoretic and practical knowledge. The 
student will find many similar sentences in " Lacon," by Rev. C. C. 
Colton ; as, for example, " A revengeful knave will do more than he will 
say ; a grateful one will say more than he will do." Style simple, clear, 
strong. 

916. Ex. 4. — " The military genius, unconquerable cour- 
age, and enduring constancy of Frederick, the ardent mind, 
burning eloquence, and lofty patriotism of Chatham, the incor- 
ruptible integrity, sagacious intellect and philosophic spirit of 
Franklin, the disinterested virtue, prophetic wisdom, and 
imperturbable fortitude of Washington, the masculine under- 
standing, feminine passions, and blood-stained ambition of 
Catharine, wo aid alone have been sufficient to cast a radiance 
over any other age of the world." — Alison. 

This is a fine example of the period, and deserves a special analysis. 
It introduces and characterizes the distinguished personages who 
flourished at the close of the eighteenth century. Observe (1), that 
the characteristic qualities are rendered prominent by the idiom 
explained in (825. c); (2) that there is a perfect symmetry in the pres- 
entation of these characteristics, three being appropriated to each per- 
son — the genius, courage, and constancy of Frederick, the mind, elo- 
quence, and patriotism of Chatham, etc. ; (3) that each characteristic is 
itself so characterized as to preserve a proper balance — military, un- 
conquerable, enduring, ardent, burning, lofty, etc. 

Observe, again, the fitness of these characteristics to the persons 
themselves, and the fitness of the group for the use which he makes of 
it as examples of the illustrious persons who rendered that period 
famous. It would not be desirable to construct a whole paragraph of 
sentences so artistic as this. But models like this should be carefully 
studied as specimens of what may be called proportion or symmetry 
in the structure. 

917. Ex. 5. — u Passing through the ravine, they came to a 
hollow, like a small amphitheatre, surrounded by perpendicular 
precipices, over the brinks of which impending trees shot 



SENTENCES EXPRESSING CONCRETE THOUGHT. 279 

their branches, so that you only caught glimpses of the azure 
shy and the bright evening cloud." — Irving. 

In this period the words are selected with the author's accustomed 
skill, so as to present to the mind a complete picture. We at once see 
the ravine, the hollow, the perpendicular precipices, the impending 
trees, and the glimpses of azure sky and evening cloud. The sentence 
is characterized by the participial construction which introduces it, 
"passing through," etc. The comparison of "hollow" with "amphi- 
theatre" is for logical not rhetorical effect. 

018. Ex. 6. — "i sapling truth, with earth at its root and 
blossoms on its branches, or a trenchant truth, that can cut 
its way through bars and sods, most men, it seems to me, dis- 
like the sight or entertainment of." — Ruskin. 

1. The Sentence. Periodic and partially balanced. 

2. Clause. Inverted order for sake of rhetorical effect. 

3. Phrases. "A sapling truth," "a trenchant truth," balanced 
phrases. 

4. Words. Figures, "sapling," and "trenchant," transferred epithet. 
"Earth," "root," "blossom," "branches," "cut," "way," "bars," 
" sods," " sight," " entertainment," are metaphors. 

5. Style. Simple, clear, and strong. 

919. Analyze and explain the rhetorical attributes of the 

following sentences : — 

• It was the month of January in Australia. A blazing hot day was 
beginning to glow through the freshness of the morning. — Charles 
Reade. 

True hope is swift, and flies with swallows' wings. 

Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures, kings. — Richard III. 

Even like a flower that finds a chink for itself and a little earth to 
grow in, on whatsoever ancient wall its slender roots may fasten. — 

Hawthorne. 

Of that translation we may say that it is, substantially, the Bible 
with which we are all familiar; the peculiar genius, if such a word 
may be permitted, which breathes through it, the mingled tenderness 



280 SENTENCES EXPRESSING CONCRETE THOUGHT. 

and majesty, the Saxon simplicity, the preternatural grandeur, un- 
equalled, unapproached, in the attempted improvements of modern 
scholars, — all are here. — Froude. 

Or nearer home our steps he led, 

Where Salisbury's level marshes spread 

Mile-wide as flies the laden bee, 
Where merry mowers, hale and strong, 
Swept, scythe on scythe, their swathes along 

The low, green prairies of the sea. — Whittier. 

But soft ! what light through yonder window breaks ! 
It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. — Romeo and Juliet. 

As yet the knights held their long lances upright, their bright points 
glancing in the sun, and the streamers with which they were decorated 
fluttering over the plumage of their helmets. — Scott. 

It was as if a company of satyrs, fauns, and nymphs, with Pan in 
the midst of them, had been disporting themselves in these venerable 
woods only a moment ago ; and now, in another moment, because 
some profane eye had looked at them too closely, or some intruder had 
cast a shadow on their mirth, the silver pageant had utterly dis- 
appeared. Just an instant before, it was Arcadia and the Golden Age. 
The spell being broken, it was only that old tract of pleasure-ground 
close to the People's Gate of Rome. — Hawthorne, 

There he stood, working at his anvil, his face radiant with exercise 
and gladness, his sleeves turned up, his wig pushed off his shining 
forehead, the easiest, freest, happiest man in all the world. — Charles 
Dickens. 

And like the baseless fabric of this vision, 
The solemn temples, the great globe itself, 
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve, 
And like this unsubstantial pageant faded, 
Leave not a rack behind. — Tempest. 

Welcome her, thunders of fort and of fleet ! 
Welcome her, thundering cheer of the street ! 
Welcome her, all things youthful and sweet ! 
Scatter the blossoms under her feet. — Tennyson. 



SENTENCES EXPRESSING STRONG FEELING. 281 

And Jura answers through her misty shroud 

Back to the joyous Alps, who call to her aloud ! — Byron. 

Here they used to sit in the shade, of a long, lazy summer's day, 
talking listlessly over village gossip, or telling endless sleepy stories 
about nothing. — Irving. 

Can any mortal mixture of earth's mould 
Breathe such divine enchanting ravishment ? 
Sure something holy lodges in that breast. — Milton. 

At length I saw a lady within call, 

Stiller than chiselled marble, standing there, 

A daughter of the gods, divinely tall, 
And most divinely fair. — Tennyson. 

The human spirit does not perish of a single wound, nor exhaust 
itself in a single trial of life. — Haivthorne. 

All sounds were in harmony blended; 
Voices of children at play, the crowing of cocks in the farm-yard, 
Whirr of wings in the drowsy air, and the cooing of pigeons ; 
All were subdued and low as the murmurs of love ; and the great sun 
Looked with the eye of love through the golden vapors around him.— 

Longfellow, 
Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting ; 
The soul that rises with us, our life's star, 
Hath had elsewhere its setting, 
And cometh from afar. — Wordsworth, 

Thou hast a charmed cup, Fame ! 

A draught that mantles high, 
And seems to lift this earthly frame 

Above mortality. 
Away ! to me, a woman, bring 
Sweet waters from affection's spring. — Hemans. 



III. Sentences in which Strong Feeling Prevails. 

920. This is a kind of language in which thought is 
made subservient to strong emotion. 

(a.) Feeling often abbreviates expression, and transforms the sentence into a 
mere fragment. It seeks utterance in the strongest terms. Thus, in describing 
the effects of a tornado, one in a comparatively deliberate state of mind would 
24* 



282 SENTENCES EXPRESSING STRONG FEELING. 

say, " It tore the branches from the trees and prostrated tree after tree in great 
numbers;" whereas, one fresh from the scene would be more likely to say, 
" Crash went the branches, and down went trees in countless numbers!'' Thus 
we have, "Strange, unaccountable paradox!" "How novel, bow grand, the 
spectacle!" 

921. Ex. 1. — "Friends, countrymen, and lovers! hear me 
for my cause, arid be silent that you may hear." — Shakespeare. 

This is a rhetorical sentence, affirming nothing, but uttering a desire 
or prayer. The words are appropriate, and the sentence takes the 
imperative form. It expresses strong but not uncontrolled feeling. It 
is in a high degree effective. 

922. Ex. 2. — "Amazing change! A shroud! a coffin! 
a narrow, subterraneous cabin ! this is all that now remains 
of Hamilton ! And is this all that remains of Hamilton f 

This sentence, from President Nott's discourse on the death of 
Hamilton, is an example of strong emotion, expressed first in a series 
of fragmentary sentences, the sum of which is then expressed by a 
full exclamatory clause, which takes the logical form, and instantly 
followed by a question of appeal which serves still further to heighten 
the effect. The expression "subterraneous cabin" is unfortunate. One 
instinctively feels that it is not in keeping with the dignity of the sub- 
ject ; the whole thought is lowered by its use. Some expression like 
''narrow house" would be far better. 

923. Ex. 3. — " An emissary of France ! 

This sentence, from Emmet's defence, is expressive of the strongest 
feeling. It is but a fragment of the complete sentence which it sug- 
gests, "Am I charged with being an emissary of France?" and is an 
example of the effect of strong feeling in producing abbreviated 
expressions. 

921. Analyze and explain the following examples: — 

Thanks be to God that this spot was honored as the asylum of 
religious liberty ! May its standard, reared here, remain for eyer. — 
Webster. 

But, — ah ! him ! the first great martyr in this great cause ! Him ! 
the premature victim of his own self-devoting heart ! — Webster. 



SENTENCES EXPRESSING STRONG FEELING. 283 

! Desdeniona ! Desdemona ! Dead ! dead ! — Shakespeare. 

Be still and gaze thou on, false king ! 
And tell me, what is this ! — Hemans. 

Who would now take for his model Achilles, or Hector, or Ulysses, 
or Agamemnon? What mother would now relate their deeds to 
her children ! — Wayland. 

But thou, Hope ! with eyes so fair, 
What was thy delighted measure ? — Collins. 

" Country !" cried Tim, with a contemptuous emphasis ; " don't you 
know that I couldn't have such a court under my bed-room window 
anywhere but in London?" — Dickens. 

Rouse, ye Romans ! Rouse, ye slaves ! 
Have ye brave sons? Look in the next fierce brawl 
To see them die ! — Miss Mitford. 

And durst thou, then, 
To beard the lion in his den, 
The Douglas in his hall?— Scott. 

Splendid panorama! How soon to be defiled with stains of dust 
and blood ! Fearful, ominous silence ! How soon to be broken by 
shouts of rage and groans of agony ! — A. H. Everett. 

Away ! Away ! my steed and I 
Upon the pinions of the wind ! — Byron. 

" Forward, the Light Brigade ! 
Charge for the guns \" he said. — Tennyson. 

Hear the loud alarum bells ! 
Brazen bells ! 
What a tale of terror their turbulency tells ! — E. A. Poe. 

1 say you have despised art! "What!" you again answer, "have 
we not art exhibitions, miles long ? and do we not pay thousands of 
pounds for single pictures? and have we not art schools and insti- 
tutions more than ever nation had before ?" — Buskin. 

Horses ! can these be horses that bound off with the action and 
gestures of leopards? What stir! what sea-like ferment! what a 
thundering of wheels ! what a trampling of hoofs ! what a sounding 
of trumpets ! what redoubling peals of brotherly congratulation !— 

De Quincey. 



SECTION V. 

EFFECTIVENESS AS DEPENDENT UPON PARAGRAPHS. 

The Formation of the Paragraph. 

925. A paragraph is a group of complete sentences with 
a unity of aim. 

(a.) The formation of the paragraph comes under the general law for the 
organization of thought (785). It discusses and exhausts a single topic. In 
the transition from topic to topic, there should be a greater break than in any of 
the smaller divisions of discourse, hence the separation between the lines, and 
the indentation of the first word. 

926. The complete sentences of the paragraph are 
grammatically co-ordinate, but logically, one usually ex- 
presses the theme, or leading thought, and all the others 
are tributary to it (785. a). 

(a.) Sometimes the leading thought is stated at the beginning, sometimes at 
the end as the summing up of all the others, and sometimes not at all, but is to 
be inferred as the implied sum of the whole. 

927. The governing principle in forming a paragraph is 
that the connection of each sentence with the leading one 
shall be explicit and clear. 

(a.) The connection between the sentences in a majority of cases is purely one 
of thought. They follow one another in simple succession, without any external 
sign of their relation. In other instances the co-ordinate conjunctions (375) per- 
form the same office for complete sentences as for the parts of compound 
sentences (721. c). 

928. The relation of paragraphs to one another is in 
outward form co-ordinate, but in thought any number of 
paragraphs may be subordinated to the ruling thought of 
a leading paragraph. 

284 



THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH 285 

(a.) To connect paragraphs, or parts of paragraphs, certain words and phrases 
of the nature of co-ordinate conjunctions are often employed. Thus for oppo- 
sition, on the contrary, on the other hand, conversely ; for succession, first, 
secondly, thirdly, or 1, 2, 3, etc. ; for summation, in short, in a word, on the whole; 
for conclusion, to sum up, to conclude, in conclusion, to recapitulate, in fine, finally ; 
for a digression, by the way, in passing ; for a return from it, to return, to pro- 
ceed, to resume; for transition or advance, again, once again, nor is this all, thus 
Jar, so far; for iteration or repetition, in other words, to vary the statement, this 
is the same as' saying ; for explanation, to explain, the explanation is this; for 
remote reference, as formerly stated, as already said, as remarked above. 

(b.) The personal pronouns are among the most important words of reference 
in the paragraph, and in the connection of paragraphs. 

929. A paragraph is defective when the thoughts are 
not consecutive, and do not show a unity of purpose. 

Ex. — The sentences in the preceding exercises, as in 650, 657, and others, 
though put together in the form of paragraphs, are disconnected, and therefore 
are not true paragraphs. 



Analysis of Paragraphs. 

930. The analysis jof a paragraph may be reduced to 
these three general steps : — 

(A.) The pointing out of the theme and of the logical relations of 

the other sentences to it. 

(a.) Let the sentences be designated in order by I., II., III.. IV., etc.; and 
draw a line under that one which expresses the theme, thus I. Then those which 
are connected with the theme will denote a simple succession of events in time, 
place, or importance, will be a description of it, a restatement of it with varia- 
tions, will be consequent upon it, an expansion, an explanation, a confirmation, an 
ilhtstration, a limitation, or a refutation of it, will be in comparison with it, in 
opposition to it, a conclusion or inference from it, or will denote some other 
obvious relation to it. Let the proper word to express the relation follow the 
numeral. 

Ex. — 1. Cortez received this remonstrance with the embarrassed air of one 
by whom it was altogether unexpected. He modestly requested time for delib- 
eration, and promised to give his answer on the following day. At the time 
appointed he called his troops together, and made them a brief address. He 
concluded by declaring his willingness to take measures for settling in the 
country. — Prescott. 



286 THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. 

The logical analysis will then be as follows : — 

I. ; II., III., IV., succession in time and as consequent upon I. 

(B.) The distinguishing of the sentences in respect to their logi- 
cal and rhetorical value ; also the pointing out of their rhetorical 
properties. 

(1.) Logical or rhetorical value. — "Write declarative, or the abbreviation, dec, 
after the numeral, when the sentence is logical (809. a), and interrogative, im- 
perative, supplicatory, exclamatory, mixed, or their abbreviations, when the sen- 
tence is non-logical or rhetorical. 

(2.) Rhetorical classification. — To show the class, affix to the numeral, periodic, 
loose, short, long, or balanced, or any abbreviation of these. 

(3.) Style. — In the same manner affix to the numeral the .words has unity, 
simple, clear, strong, concise, vivacious, or harmonious. 

(4.) Rhetorical elements or devices. — For the prevailing words, such as the 
principal subject or predicate (873), affix words literal, words abstract, words con- 
crete, or wds. lit., etc. ; also ivords figurative, giving the number of the para- 
graph for the figure, or wds. fig. 861, etc.; for the construction, construction 
natural, construction figurative, giving the number of paragraph as above, or 
constr. nat., or constr. fig. 865. 

Ex. — Taking the selection above, we have its rhetorical analysis as follows : — 

(1.) I., II., III., IV., all declarative. 

(2.) I., II., III., IV., all periodic. 

(3.) I., II., III., IV., have unity, simple, clear, concise. 

(4.) I., II., III., IV. "Wds. lit. Principal subject concrete; constr. 
nat., except II. (fig. 861), HI. (figs. 861, 865). 

Note. — Strictly speaking the analysis of the paragraph as such ends with 
the second general step, since its units (3) are entire sentences. But as the 
examples in the preceding chapters have been for the most part detached 
sentences, chosen on account of their brevity, to bring into prominence the 
special points to be illustrated, they have not met all the difficulties of gram- 
matical analysis. When sentences become the constituent parts of paragraphs- 
they are constructed with reference to rhetorical effect. Hence, there are so 
many ellipses, contractions, suppressions, inversions, extended and peculiar con- 
structions, figures, and other rhetorical devices, that they are often beset with new 
difficulties. On this account the third step deserves special attention. He is a 
good grammarian, and he only, who can account for all the ordinary forms of 
language which occur in well-written books. For this reason it will be neces- 
sary to modify and somewhat increase the symbols of (48). 



THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. 287 

(C.) The reducing of each sentence to its grammatical elements. 

(1.) Its grammatical siructure as a whole. — For a simple sentence, affix to the 
numeral simple, or Sm. : for a complex, affix complex, or Cp. ; for a compound 
compound, or Cd., for a compound and complex, compound and complex, or Cd. 
and Cp., for a partially compound, Cd. underlined thus, Cd. 

(2.) Its clausal structure.— For a principal clause put S P, capitals; for a sub- 
ordinate clause, s p, small, and let the connective, on account of its importance, 
be written in full. In this way a sentence partially compound will stand, if 
compound in the subject S and, or, but S and SP; if in the predicate S P, and, 
or, but (as the case may be) P or P or etc., the S or P being repeated as many 
times as there are subjects or predicates. 

(3.) Its structure as to its various elements. — Let the elements be represented as in 
paragraph 48 ; and as additional symbols, let Is. (loose) be used in case of an inde- 
pendent element, or in case of an element belonging to the whole sentence, and not 
to any one word, and let it be Is. 2 , or Is. 3 , in case of a phrase or a clause ; let ex. 
stand for an expletive, and be placed at the beginning of the sentence ; and let a 
and the, on account of their frequent occurrence, be represented by a dot ( . ) placed 
before the word or combination, or let them be wholly omitted, as may be thought 
best. When an element or a combination of elements is suppressed, as many are 
for rhetorical effect, it may be restored by placing the symbols in brackets, 
thus [S PJ. As this whole plan proceeds upon the assumption that the terms of 
every combination (23) are factors of each other, the position of the symbols 
should indicate the arrangement of the terms. This can be done in case of 
simple elements adjacent to each other by placing the factors thus, S P, a S, S o, 
S v, when arranged in the natural order, and with the symbol accented thus, 
S P', a' S, S o', S v', when it stands in an order different from that of the ele- 
ment itself. Thus, .a' 2 S = trees of the forest, 8P' = come ye. In case an element 
is not adjacent, but is inverted, enclose it in a parenthesis where it does occur, and 
repeat the parenthesis with tr. where it logically should occur. See sentence I., 
below. When one term has two or more different factors, put them in a brace 

thus, , 3 [ S = that man who came too late. 

Whenever a teacher desires to represent a more minute reduction of second 
class elements, he may restore their exponents or formative*, thus : P 2 = c A, c A, 
h A, m A, m A, s A, w A, for copula and attribute, can, have, may, must, shall, or 
will, and attribute; or thus, a2, v 2 , o 2 , = p0, for preposition and object. Elements 
of the third class may be developed by writing the exponent or connective in 
full, as directed in step (2), above, and symbolizing their parts as already 
explained. See sentence I. below. 

Ex. — Applying the method to the example above, we have the reduction to 
elements as follows : — 

(1.) I., Cp.; II., HI-, Cd ; IV., Sm. 

(2.) S P, by whom s p ; II., III., S P and P ; IV., S P. 



288 THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. 

!oa' 
•■"\Z*\ a 3 = (bywliom)sp 2 JU.) 

H.=S PSo' a3 and P o 2 i.^. 
Hi.-(.V 2 a)SPJv 0a 2 ' andp JO.'. 

iv.=SPv ! o{^ 0a2 . v2 . . 

Observe that sentence I. is composed of one principal and one subordinate 
proposition connected by the relative " whom," preceded by the preposition 
" by," and that " by whom " is an inverted adverbial phrase modifying " unex- 
pected," after which it stands sym.bolized in parenthesis as (y 2 tr.); that sen- 
tence II. is composed of one subject not modified and two predicates, the first 
modified by two added elements, and tbe second by one, the latter itself being 
modified by two elements; that sentence III. is composed of a subject not modi- 
fied and two predicates, the first being modified by three elements, and the second 
by two. The phrase " at the appointed time " being separated from the element 
which it modifies is enclosed in ( ) and the (tr.) is repeated in connection with 
the predicate. 

As an oral exercise on step (3) let each member of the class look carefully at 
these formulas (on his paper or on the blackboard) and answer these questions: 
How many distinct elements in I. ? (Count every proposition as one element.) 
in II.? in III.? in IV.? In I., what is the complex predicate? In II., the 
complex and compound predicate? Describe the first modifier of the objective 
element of the second predicate in II. (Thus o a' represents a complex direct 
objective element of the first class.) Let these questions be varied and extended, 
if necessary, to all the elements. 

(4.) lis structure as to parts of speech. — Let the phrases and subordinate 
clauses, whether simple or complex, be parsed as if they were single words; let 
them be named as parts of speech, then let their connectives be parsed; be 
careful to point out the two terms which they connect ; then, at the discretion of 
the teacher, let any or all of tbe. words be parsed. By no means should this 
exercise be neglected. The most difficult words in every clause or phrase should 
be parsed till their construction is completely mastered. (See Sug. p. 223.) 

(5.) Reproduction and reconstruction. — Let the sentence, or any part of it, be 
reproduced by the class as the teacher reads the symbols, or let it, or any part 
of it, be reconstructed as the symbols are changed. Thus in II. give the words 

for P I v - in III. V 2 a, and state what it modifies. Reconstruct II. as if the 
1 o a 2 ' 

f > f v ' 

predicate were P | v 3 and P o s ; also, as if the first were P< o . Construct IV. as if, 

the predicate were P V 2 o s . 



THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. 289 

(6.) Miscellaneous exercise. — Change I. so as to introduce the connective 
combination as if. Make two distinct sentences of II. In III. change the order 
of the modifiers of the first predicate, and decide which order is the best. Put 
the indirect object of the second predicate after the direct. Write IV. by 
changing "concluded" to an abstract noun, and "declaring" so as to make 
it the predicate of the sentence ; by changing " willingness " so as to make it the 
attribute of a subordinate clause. Give the abstract nouns in the passage, and 
turn them into class-words or concretes ; show how their forms vary by these 
changes. Turn " deliberation " into an infinitive. Rewrite the sentences, and 
employ synonyms or any equivalents. 

Suggestion. — This example has been extended in order to illustrate the method 
in full. The teacher will readily see that the steps (A), (B), and (C) may be 
separated, and any one may be taken alone. Various modifications of the 
methods for the sake of brevity can easily be introduced. A grammar lesson 
like (C) above may be wrought out with almost the precision of problems in 
Arithmetic. The method necessitates study and careful preparation. It gives 
ample scope for drill in change of construction after a good model of construc- 
tion has been minutely and accurately made out. As classes advance the higher 
exercises in (A) and (B) may occupy them exclusively. The exercises in (A) 
and (B) should be taught in connection with the study of Chapter VI. Under 
step (8) questions pertaining to idiom, variety of expression, modification of 
form, parallel forms from good authors, formation of words, choice of words, 
history of words, synonyms, style, etc., etc., may be multiplied indefinitely. 

In the following passage, after reading carefully the whole paragraph, and 
getting the meaning of the sentences and their parts, apply to it steps (A) 
and (C). 

Ex. 2. — One of the rarest powers possessed by man is the power to state a 
fact. It seems a very simple thing to tell the truth, but, beyond all question, 
there is nothing half so easy as lying. To comprehend a fact in its exact length, 
breadth, relations, and significance, and to state it in language that shall repre- 
sent it with exact fidelity, are the work of a mind singularly gifted, finely 
balanced, and thoroughly practiced in that special department of effort. The 
greatness of Daniel Webster was more apparent in his power to state a fact, or 
to present a truth, than in any other characteristic of his gigantic nature. It 
was the power of truth that won for him his forensic victories. 

J. G. Holland, in " Lessons in Life." 

(A.) I.; II., re-statement; III., enlargement; IV., illustration; V., 

application of IV. and V. 

(C.) (1.) I. Sm.; II. Cd.; III. Cd. and Cp. ; IV. Cp. ; V. Cp. 

(2.) I., S P; II., S P but S P; III., S and S p that s Pj 
IV., S P than [s p] ; V., S P that s p. 

(3.) i.«v a M.a'S.PV.o 

25 



ill 



290 THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. 

u.+Ex. ,o> S' 2 . PW but &.« Ex. s ? 2 {xi; P-c A A; 

V 3 = ass[p 2 ]. 

.©n 

= o f v'Hq 2 and °2}o2 02 2 ( av , r 

'. *Lsr a ' 3V I s - p>a &Mig; a 3 =that 

S P 2 5?2a'. 

IV.«a' 2 .S P 2 i^ 3 j... . oora2o ; *-than [s p2] ^y^ 

V. = S. P 2 { ta ; a 8 = that s pSolaS or it may be thus: Ex. a" 

S'Pi; a 3 = which sp SSL. 

Observe, in step (2), that sentence II. has two independent clauses connected 
by "but," that III. has two subjects connected by " and," that one of them con- 
tains, as a secondary modifier, a subordinate clause connected by " that." 
Observe, also, in V., that the two methods of analysis depend upon the interpre- 
tation of " it." " It" may be a pronoun of definite or of indefinite reference, or 
it may be a mere expletive. Regarding " it" as having the second use, we have 
the first method, as having the third, the second. Notice in II. that the copu- 
lative verb " seems" is first taken with its second attribute as P 2 , and afterward 
is expanded into c A A (90. 4, a), the copula and attributive part of " seems" = 
" is seeming," and the added attribute " thing ;" in the second part of II. notice the 
element marked Is.' 2 , also that marked v' 2 = [by] half. (See added Rule E, App. V.) 

How many elements of the third class in each of these sentences ? Of the 
second? Examine the sentences, and state whether substantive or adjective 
elements prevail in this passage. In III. how many distinct elements, simple or 
complex, modify each principal subject? How many similar elements modify 
mindf State, as definitely as you can, the office of each added element in the 
sentences. On more — than (see 674). In IV. how many similar elements modify 
power? In I. what is the complex subject? the complex attribute? 

4. Parse in I. one, possessed, 'power, to stale (see 446). In II., it (see 444), but, 
these, go, as (see 671). In III. are, work (see 148). In IV. to present, in, often, 
than, his. In V. that, for him, forensic. 

5. Reproduce the sentences from the symbols. 

Is the phrase possessed by man preferable to which man has or to man's f In 
II. get rid of the expletives it and there, then give the symbols and decide which 
is the better sentence, the one given or the one so formed. Try to re-write III. 
so as to say all the author says in fewer words. Is with exact fidelity a stronger 
expression than exactly, or than with fidelity f is it more elegant? In IV. does 



THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. 291 

to present a truth mean something different from to state a fact f Change more 
to most, reconstruct and symbolize. Has gigantic in the last part any reference 
to greatness in the first part ? Would the last sentence be as powerful if expressed 
thus? — " The power of truth won his forensic victories." Give the concrete of 
victory. 

Ex. 3. — The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

Now fades the glimmering landscape from the sight, 

And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 

Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight 

And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. — Gray's Elegy. 

These stanzas contain two sentences. Apply to them step (C), as follows: — 

(1.) I., Cd. ; II., Cd. and Cp. 

(2.) I. S P [and] S P [and] S P and P, II. S P and S P save 
where S p and $ p, 

(3.) I. = (S P).aaV,or S P-0 a* a', [and] a. S PU 2 [and] ,S P&a* 

( o2 and o2. 



andPJ-°- 



n— (v) (P) .a S (P. «r.) \Z?\ and a (p o»fr.).S P.o'a 

(P 3 ); 3 = where s p o aa ' and a S p. o a . 

(4.) Parse with great care all the words in this passage. As an unvarying 
principle, let your disposal of words and phrases be determined by your under- 
standing of an author's thought ; and that the thought may be understood, look 
sharply at the meaning of words, and try to find the proper connection or rela- 
tion between the ideas which the sentence expresses. Ex. — The tolling of the 
curfew is the knell of de-parting day ; therefore knell may be in apposition with 
the sentence (see 261) ; hence, S P is included in parenthesis because a a 2 a ', as an 
adjective element, belongs not to S or P alone. By many knell would be regarded 
as an object of kindred signification with the verb, as in the second marking. 
In the sixth line ask whether the author means to say " that the air holds a 
solemn stillness," or that " a solemn stillness holds the air," and you will have 
no difficulty in determining which is the subject and which the object. 

Save is a preposition, showing the relation between where the . . . distant folds, 
and all; that is, all the air except or save, the part excepted, is still. 



292 THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. 

(5.) Reproduce as before. What is an elegy ? Who was Gray ? 

Learn by heart the entire poem from which this is taken ; and as you read and 
repeat it, make, for each sentence, a picture to your mind's eye (800. a). 

Interpret — that is, ask the meaning and force of — the adjectives found in it; 
what is the lowing herd ? what is a weary way ? (see 854. a). How can a writer 
transfer such a quality from a person to the way or road he is plodding over ? 
So with glimmering, solemn, droning, and drowsy. As you learn, by a close 
scrutiny of their use by good writers, the real power of adjectives as expressing 
qualities, states, or actions attributed as qualities to objects, endeavor to use 
them with more discretion and more force in your own composition. In short, 
study carefully this elegy, analyze it with exactness, challenge every word in it 
to give up to you its separate contribution to the chain of the whole, and you 
will write and speak better English all your life after. 

Ex. 4. — The Lord my pasture shall prepare, 
And feed me with a shepherd's care ; 
His presence shall my wants supply, 
And guard me with a watchful eye ; 
My noonday walks he shall attend, 
And all my midnight hours defend. 

When in the sultry glebe I faint, 

Or on the thirsty mountain pant, 

To fertile vales and dewy meads 

My weary wandering step he leads, 

Where peaceful rivers, soft and slow, 

Amid the verdant landscape flow. — Addison. 

These stanzas contain one sentence each. Apply to them step (C), as follows : — 
(1.) l. = (Cd., Cd., Cd.) II. Cp. 

(2.) I. = S P and P, S P and P, S P and P; II. -when S p or 

p, S P where s p. 

(3.) I. . S P 2 0' a ' and P{°v, a S PV .' and Pft, a ,; ( j2) S P 
(OJW and PV 3a'. 

ii. (V 3 ) (v 2a ' and vV) Cos a') S P {j™^*.,,... 

Observe that the parts in I. are grammatically as well as rhetorically loose — 
that is, the sentence is composed of three members which have no grammatical 



THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. 293 

connectives to join them. In II. develop v' 3 and a 3 . Explain why a 3 belongs 
as an adjective element to v 2 and v 2 . What is where equivalent to ? 

(4.) Parse all the elements of the second class in the stanzas. In the second 
stanza parse vjhen, or, and where: in, on, to, and amid. 

Note. — In parsing connectives tell definitely what are joined by them, and 
remember that the subordinate connective joins its clause with some word in the 
principal clause. 
(5.) Reproduce as before. 

"What is the common form of vales, meads, amid ? Try to substitute other 
words for any in the passage, and notice whether the tone is improved or the 
reverse. Are most of the words of Saxon or of Latin origin ? Transpose the 
second stanza into prose. What is a glebe ? a landscape t a thirsty mountain ? 
What is the opposite of fertile ? dewyf 'peaceful? verdant? What abstract nouns 
are formed from the same root with sultry? thirsty? fertile? dewy? weary? 
peaceful ? verdant ? soft ? slow? What figure in " weary," " wanderiDg " ? What 
is the difference between prose and verse ? (See Greene's Eng. Gram. p. 312.) 



Selections for Analysis. 

931. Analyze the following paragraphs, and apply, as you 
may be directed, any or all of the preceding steps. 

Observe that the small letters refer to paragraphs in the text. 

1. There a is no great event in modern history, or, perhaps it may be 
said more broadly none in all history from its earliest records, less 
generally known or more thrilling to the imagination than the flight 
eastward of a primitive nation across the boundless steppes of Asia, 
in the latter half of the last century. In the abruptness of its com- 
mencement and the fierce velocity of its execution b , we read an ex- 
pression of the wild, barbaric character of the agents. In the unity 
of purpose connecting this myriad of wills, and in the blind but un- 
erring aim at a march so remote, there is something which recalls to 
the mind that almighty instinct that propels the migration of the 
swallow or the life- withering marches of the locust. Then, again c , in 
the gloomy vengeance of Russia and her vast artillery, which hung 
upon the rear and skirts of the fugitive vassals, we are reminded of 
Miltonic images — such, for instance, as that of the solitary band pur- 
suing through desert spaces and through ancient chaos rebellious hosts 
with volleying thunders, though they believed themselves already 
beyond their reach and within the security of the darkness and of 
distance. — De Quineey, in the Flight of a Tartar Tribe. 

a (444), also (874). t> (865, 874). « 928, a. 



294 THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. 

2. "Signior Antonio, many a b time and oft ; c 
On the Rialto, you have rated me 
About my moneys and my usances ; 
Still have I borne it with a patient shrug : 
For sufferance is the badge of all our tribe. 
You call me — misbeliever, cut-throat, dog — 
And spit upon my Jewish gabardine, 
And all for use of that which is mine own. 
Well then, it now appears you need my help : 
Go to, then ; you come to me and you say, 
" Shylock, we would have moneys ;" you say so ; 
You, d that did void your rheum upon my beard, 
And foot me as you spurn a stranger cur 
Over your threshold : moneys is your suit. 

Shakspeare in Merchant of Venice. 
* (354). »> (App. V., added Eules, E). " (883, 1, a). * (858, a). 

3. I see before me the Gladiator lie : a 

He leans upon his hand — his manly brow 
Consents to death, but conquers agony , b 
And his drooped head sinks gradually low — 
And c through his side the last drops, ebbing slow 
From the red gash, fall heavy, one by one, d 
Like the first of a thunder-shower ; and now 
The arena swims around him — he is gone, 
Ere e ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch who won. 

Byron. 
» (801). "(891,6). c (884, c). * (848). * (605, a). 

4. Anon, out of the earth a fabric huge 
Rose, a like an exhalation, with the sound 
Of dulcet symphonies and voices sweet, b 
Built a like a temple, where pilasters round 
Were set, and Doric pillars overlaid 
With golden architrave ; nor did there want 
Cornice or frieze, with bossy sculptures graven. 
c The roof was fretted gold, b . . . 

And straight the doors, 
Opening their brazen folds, discover wide 
Within, her ample spaces, o'er the smooth 
And level pavement ; from the arched roof, 



THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. 295 

Pendent by subtle magic, many a row 

Of starry lamps and blazing cressets, fed 

With naphtha and asphaltus, yielded light 

As a from a sky. Milton's Paradise Lost, Book I. 

» (848). b (886). c (854). 

5. a It is beauteous evening, calm and free ; 
The holy time is quiet, as a nun 
Breathless with adoration ; the broad sun 
Is sinking down in its tranquillity ; 

The gentleness of heaven broods o'er the sea ; 
a Listen ! the mighty Being is awake, 
And doth with his eternal motion make 
b A sound like thunder everlastingly. 
Dear child ! dear girl ! that walkest with me here, 
If thou appear untouched by solemn thought, 
Thy nature is not therefore less divine : 
Thou liest in Abraham's bosom all the year, 
And worshipps't at the temple's inner shrine, 
c God being with thee when we know it not. — Wordsworth. 
* (856). »> (882). c (699). 

6. These are the gardens of the desert ; these 
The unshorn fields, boundless 3 - and beautiful, 
For which the speech of England has no name — 
The prairies. . . . Lo ! they stretch 

In airy undulations b far away, 
As if c the Ocean, in his gentle swell, 
Stood still, with all his rounded billows fixed 
And motionless for ever. Motionless ? d 
No ; they are all unchained again. The clouds 
Sweep over with their shadows, and, beneath, 
The surface rolls and fluctuates to the eye ; 
Dark hollows seem to glide along and chase 
The sunny ridges. Bryant. 

»(882). b (850). «(848). d (863). 

7. " Have, then, thy wish !" He whistled shrill, 
And he was answered from the hill ; 
Wild as the scream of the curlew, 
From crag to crag the signal flew ; 



296 THE FORMATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. 

Instant, through copse and heath, arose 
Bonnets and spears and bended bows ; 
a On right, on left, above, below, 
Spring up at once the lurking foe ; 
From shingles gray their lances start, 
The bracken bush sends forth the dart, 
The rushes and the willow-wand 
Are bristling into axe and brand, b 
And every tuft of broom gives life 
To plaided warriors armed for strife. 

Scott in Lady of the Lake. 

a (865). * (Vivacity). 

8. And, therefore, first of all, I tell you earnestly and authoritatively 
(I know I am right in this), you must get into the habit of looking 
intensely at words, and assuring yourself of their meaning, "syllable 
by syllable, — nay, a letter by letter. ... If you read ten pages of a 
good book, letter by letter, — that is to say, with real accuracy, — you 
are for evermore in some measure an educated person. ... A well- 
educated gentleman may not know many languages — may have read 
very few books. b But whatever language he knows, he knows pre- 
cisely ; whatever word he pronounces, he pronounces rightly ; above 
all he is learned in the peerage of words ; knows the words of true 
descent and ancient blood, at a glance, from words of modern canaille; 
remembers all their ancestry, their intermarriages, distant relationship, 
and offices they held at any time and in any country. — RusMn in Ses- 
ame and Lilies. 

a (App. V., added Rules, E). »> (891). ° (850). 

Observe the sentences: periodic 889. 1, clear 879. 

9. There were sounds of gayety outside," musical instruments and 
noisy tongues and laughter. A crowd of young merry-makers came pour- 
ing in, among whom were May Fielding and a score of pretty girls. Dot a 
was the fairest of them all ; as young as any of them, too. They came 
to summon her to join their party. It was a dance. If ever little foot 
were made for dancing, hers was, surely." But she laughed and shook 
her head, and pointed to her cookery on the fire and her table ready 
spread with an exulting defiance that rendered her more charming 
than she was before. a And so she merrily dismissed them, nodding to 
her would-be partners one by one as they passed out, with a comical 
indifference, — Dickens in Cricket on the Hearth. 

a (Loose sentence 889.2, 883.2; vivacity). 



APPENDIX L 



Declension of Nouns and Pronouns. 

The declension of a noun or pronoun is its variation to 
denote number and case. 

EXAMPLES. 



DECLENSION OF NOTTNS. 


DECLENSION OF PBONOUNS. 




NOUNS. 




PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 




1. 


Boy. 




First Person. 




Sing. 


PIup. 




Sing. 


Plur. 


Nom. 


Boy, 


Boys, 


Nom. 


I, 


We, 


Poss. 


Boy's, 


Boys', 


Poss. 


My, mine, 


Our, ours, 


Obj. 


Boy. 


Boys. 


Obj. 


Me. 


Us. 




2. 


Fly. 




Second Ferson. 




Sing. 


Plur. 




Sing. 


Plur. 


Nom. 


Fly, 


Flies, 


Nom. 


Thou, 


Ye, you, 


Poss. 


Fly's, 


Flies', 


Poss. 


Thy, thine, 


Your, yours, 


Obj. 


Fly. 


Flies. 


Obj. 


Thee. 


You. 




3. 


Fox. 




Third Person. 


{Masculine.) 




Sing. 


Plur. 




Sing. 


Plur. 


Nom. 


Fox, 


Foxes, 


Nom. 


He, 


They, 


Poss. 


Fox's, 


Foxes', 


Poss. 


His, 


Their, theirs, 


Obj. 


Fox. 


Foxes. 


Obj. 


Him. 


Them. 




4. 


John. 




TJiird Person. 


{Feminine.) 




Sing. 


Plur. 




Sing. 


Plur. 


Nom. 


John, 


Wanting. 


Nom. 


She, 


They, 


Poss. 


John's, 




Poss. 


Her, hers, 


Their, theirs, 






Obj. 


John. 




Obj. 


Her. 


Them. 



5. Goodness. 
Sing. Plur. 

Nom. Goodness, Wanting. 

Poss. Goodness', 

Obj. Goodness. 



Tliird Person. {Neuter.) 
Sing. Plur. 

Nom. It, They, 

Poss. Its, Their, theirs, 

Obj. It. Them. 

297 



298 



APPENDIX. 



Compound Personal Pronouns. 



Sing. 
Norn. Myself, 

Poss. 

Obj. Myself. 

Masc. 

Nom. Himself, 

Poss. 

Obj. Himself. 



Plur. 

Ourselves, 

Ourselves. 



Singular. 

Fern. 

Herself, 
Herself. 



Sing. Piur. 

Nom. Thyself, yourself, Yourselves, 

Poss. — 

Obj. Thyself. Yourselves. 



Neut. 

Itself, 
Itself. 



Plural. 

Themselves, 
Themselves. 



Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. 





Sing. 


Plur. 




Sing. 


Plur. 


Nom. 


Who, 


Who, 


Nom. 


Whosoever, 


Whosoever, 


Poss. 


"Whose, 


W^hose, 


Poss. 


Whosesoever, 


Whosesoever, 


Obj. 


Whom. 


Whom. 


Obj. 


Whomsoever. 


Whomsoever 



In like manner decline whoever. The possessive is wanting in what, which, 
that, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever. 



APPENDIX II 



List of Irregular Terbs. 

The principal parts of a verb are the present indicative, 
the past indicative, and the past participle. 



Ex. — Pres. Explain. 


Past. Explained. 


Past. Part. Explained. 


Write, 


Wrote, 


Written. 


Shine, 


Shone, 


Shone. 


Hurt, 


Hurt, 


Hurt. 



An irregular verb is one which does not form its past 
tense and past participle by adding ed to the present tense ; 
as see, saw, seen; write, wrote, written. 



APPENDIX. 



299 



The irregular verbs were much more numerous in the early history of the 
language than at present. The tendency in modern English is constantly to 
diminish the number of irregular formations ; hence the numerous obsolete 
forms. Some of the present forms are derived from other verbs. Went comes 
from wend, and not from go. Philologists call the irregular the strong and the 
regular the weak inflection. 

The following list contains the principal parts of the irregular verbs. 
Those verbs which are marked e. have also the regular forms. Those 
which are italicized are either obsolete or are becoming so, and should 
not be committed to memory. When the R is dark-faced, the regular 
form#is preferred, and should be repeated first; r, in italics, means 
regular but seldom used. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Abide, 


Abode, 


Abode. 


Arise, 


Arose, 


Arisen. 


Awake, 


Awoke, r. 


Awaked. 


Be or am, 


Was, 


Been. 


Bear (to bring forth), 


Bore, bare, 


Born. 


Bear (to carry), 


Bore, bare, 


Borne. 


Beat, 


Beat, 


Beaten, beat. 


Begin, 


Began, 


Begun. 


Belay, 


Belaid, e. 


Belaid, e. 


Bend, 


Bent, r. 


Bent, r. 


Bet, 


Bet, e. 


Bet, e. 


Bereave, 


Bereft, 


Bereft, r. 


Beseech, 


Besought, 


Besought. 


Bid, 


Bid, bade, 


Bidden, bid. 


Bind, TJn- 


Bound, 


Bound. 


Bite, 


Bit, 


Bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


Bled, 


Bled. 


Blend, 


Blent, R. 


Blent, R. 


Bless, 


Blest, R. 


Blest, R. 


Blow, 


Blew, 


Blown. 


Break, 


Broke, brake, 


Broken, broke 


Breed, 


Bred, 


Bred. 


Bring, 


Brought, 


Brought. 


Build, Be- 


Built, r. 


Built, r. 


Burn, 


Burnt, E. 


Burnt, E. 


Burst, 


Burst, 


Burst. 


Buy, 


Bought, 


Bought. 


Cast, 


Cast, 


Cast. . 



600 




APPENDIX. 




Present. 




Past. 


Past Participle. 


Catch, 




Caught, r 


Caught, r. 


Chide, 




Chid, 


Chidden, chid. 


Choose, 




Chose, 


Chosen. 


Cleave (to 


adhere), 


Cleaved, clave, 


Cleaved. 


Cleave (to 


split), 


Clove, cleft, clave, 


Cleft, cloven, r. 


Cling, 




Clung, 


Clung. 


Clothe, 




Clad, e. 


Clad, e. 


Come, Be 


- 


Came, 


Come. 


Cost, 




Cost, 


Cost. 


Creep 




Crept, 


Crept. 


Crow, 




Crew, E. 


Crowed. 


Cut, 




Cut, 


Cut. 


Dare (to venture), 


Durst, e. 


Dared. 


Dare (to challenge, e/ 


), Dared, 


Dared. 


Deal, 




Dealt, r. 


Dealt, r. 


Dig, 




Dug, r. 


Dug, r. 


Do, Mis-, 


Tin-, Out- 


Did, 


Done. 


Draw, 




Drew, 


Drawn. 


Dream, 




Dreamt, E. 


Dreamt, E. 


Dress, 




Drest, R. 


Drest, R. 


Drink, 




Drank, 


Drunk, drank. 


Drive, 




Drove, 


Driven. 


Dwell, 




Dwelt, r. 


Dwelt, r. 


Eat, 




Ate, eat, 


Eaten, or eat. 


Fall, Be- 




Fell, 


Fallen. 


Feed, 




Fed, 


Fed. 


Feel, 




Felt, 


Felt. 


Fight, 




Fought, 


Fought. 


Find, 




Found 


Found. 


. Flee, 




Fled, 


Fled. 


Fling, 




Flung, 


Flung. 


Fly, 




Flew, 


Flown. 


Forbear, 




Forbore, 


Forborne. 


Forget, 




Forgot, 


Forgotten, forgot. 


Forsake, 




Forsook, 


Forsaken. 


Freeze, 




Froze, 


Frozen. 


Freight, 




Freighted, 


Fraught, e. 


Get, Be-, 


For- 


Got, 


Got, gotten. 


Gild, 




Gilt, E. 


Gilt, e. 


Gird, Be- 


, En- 


Girt, 


Girt, e. 



APPENDIX. 



301 



Present. 




Past. 


Past Participle. 


Give, For-, 


Mis- 


Gave, 


Given. 


Go, 




Went, 


Gone. 


Grave, En- 




Graved, 


Graven, e. 


Gnnd, 




Ground, 


Ground. 


Grow, 




Grew, 


Grown. 


Hang (to take life, e 


), Hung, 


Hung. 


Have, 




Had, 


Had. 


Hear, 




Heard, 


Heard. 


Heave, 




Hove, R. 


Hoven, R. 


Hew, 




Hewed, 


Hewn, e. 


Hide, 




Hid, 


Hidden, hid. 


Hit, 




Hit, 


Hit. 


Hold, Be-, 


With- 


Held, 


Held, holden. 


Hurt, 




Hurt, 


Hurt. 


Keep, 




Kept, 


Kept. 


Kneel, 




Knelt, r. 


Knelt, r. 


Knit, 




Knit, r. 


Knit, r. 


Know, 




Knew, 


Known. 


Lade, to load (to dip, I 


..), Laded, 


Laden, e. 


Lay, 




Laid, 


Laid. 


Lead, Mis- 




Led, 


Led. 


Leap, 




Leapt, R. 


Leapt, R. 


Learn, 




Learnt, R. 


Learnt, R. 


Leave, 




Left, 


Left. 


Lend, 




Lent, 


Lent. 


Let, 




Let, 


Let. 


Lie (to recline), 


Lay, 


Lain. 


Lie(to speak falsely ,% 


.), Lied, 


Lied. 


Light, 




Lit, R. 


Lit, R. 


Lose, 




Lost, 


Lost. 


Make, 




Made, 


Made. 


Mean, 




Meant, 


Meant. 


Meet, 




Met, 


Met. 


Mow, 




Mowed, 


Mown, R. 


Pass, 




Past, R. 


Past, R. 


Pay, Re- 




Paid, 


Paid. 


Pen (to enclose), 


Pent, R. 


Pent, R. 


Prove, 




Proved, 


Proven, R. 


Put, 




Put, 


Put. 


Quit, 




Quit, r. 


Quit, r. 


26 









302 


APPENDIX. 




Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Rap, 


Rapt, e. 


Rapt, e. 


Read, 


Read, 


Read. 


Rend, 


Rent, 


Rent. 


Rid, 


Rid, 


Rid. 


Ride, 


Rode, rid, 


Ridden, rid. 


Ring, 


Rang, rung, 


Rung. 


Rise, A. 


Rose, 


Risen. 


Rive, 


Rived, 


Riven, e. 


Run, 


Ran, run, 


Run. 


Saw, 


Sawed, 


Sawn, R. 


Say, 


Said, 


Said. 


See, 


Saw, 


Seen. 


Seek, 


Sought, 


Sought. 


Seethe, 


Sod, e. 


Sodden, E. 


Sell, 


Sold, 


Sold. 


Send, 


Sent, 


Sent. 


Set, Be- 


Set, 


Set. 


Shake, 


Shook, 


Shaken. 


Shape, Mis. 


Shaped, 


Shapen, e. 


Shave, 


Shaved, 


Shaven, e. 


Shear, 


Sheared {shore, obs.), 


Shorn, e. 


Shed, 


Shed, 


Shed. 


Shine, 


Shone, e. 


Shone, E. 


Shoe, 


Shod, 


Shod. 


Shoot, 


Shot, 


Shot. 


Show, 


Showed, 


Shown, E. 


Shred, 


Shred, 


Shred. 


Shrink, 


Shrunk, shrank, 


Shrunk or shrunken, 


Shut, 


Shut, 


Shut. 


Sing, 


Sang, sung, 


Sung. 


Sink, 


Sunk, sank, 


Sunk. 


Sit, 


Sat, 


Sat. 


Slay, 


Slew, 


Slain. 


Sleep, 


Slept, 


Slept. 


Slide, 


Slid, 


Slidden, slid. 


Sling, 


Slung, slang, 


Slung. 


Slink, 


Slunk, 


Slunk. 


Slit, 


Slit, r. 


Slit, r. 


Smell, 


Smelt, R. 


Smelt, R. 


Smite, 


Smote, 


Smitten, emit. 



APPENDIX. 



303 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Sow {to scatter), 


Sowed, 


Sown, r. 


Speak, Be- 


Spoke, spake, 


Spoken. 


Speed, 


Sped, r. 


Sped, r. 


Spell, 


Spelt, R. 


Spelt, r. 


Spend, Ms- 


Spent, 


Spent. 


Spill, 


Spilt, R. 


Spilt, r. 


Spin, 


Spun, span, 


Spun. 


Spit, Be- 


Spit, spat, 


Spit. 


Split, 


Split, r. 


Split, r. 


Spoil, 


Spoilt, R. 


Spoilt, R. 


Spread, Be- 


Spread, 


Spread. 


Spring, 


Sprang, sprung, 


Sprung. 


Stand, With-, etc. 


Stood, 


Stood. 


Stave, 


Stove, R. 


Stove, R. 


Stay, 


Staid, r. 


Staid, r. 


Steal, 


Stole, 


Stolen. 


Stick, 


Stuck, 


Stuck. 


Sting, 


Stung, 


Stung. 


Stride, 


Strode, strid, 


Stridden, strid. 


Strike, 


Struck, 


Struck, stricken. 


String, 


Strung, 


Strung. 


Strive, 


Strove, 


Striven. 


Strow, or Strew, Be- 


Strowed or strewed, 


Strown, strewn. 


Swear, 


Swore, sware, 


Sworn. 


Sweat, 


Sweat, r. 


Sweat, r. 


Sweep, 


Swept, 


Swept. 


Swell, 


Swelled, 


Swollen, r. 


Swim, 


Swam, swum, 


Swum. 


Swing, 


Swung, 


Swung. 


Take, Be-, etc. 


Took, 


Taken. 


Teach, Mis-, Re- 


Taught, 


Taught. 


Tear, 


Tore, tare, 


Torn. 


Tell, 


Told, 


Told. 


Think, Be- 


Thought, 


Thought. 


Thrive, 


Throve, R. 


Thriven, R. 


Throw, 


Threw, 


Thrown. 


Thrust, 


Thrust, 


Thrust. 


Tread, 


Trod, 


Trodden, trod. 


Wake, 


Woke, R. 


Woke, R. 


Wax, 


Waxed, 


Waxen, r. 



304 



APPENDIX. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Wear, 


Wore, 


Worn. 


Weave, 


Wove, 


Woven. 


Wed, 


Wed, R. 


Wed, R. 


Weep, 


Wept, 


Wept. 


Wet, 


Wet, b. 


Wet, b. 


Whet, 


Whet, b. 


Whet, b. 


Win, 


Won, 


Won. 


Wind, 


Wound, e. 


Wound. 


Work, 


Wrought, B. 


Wrought, b. 


Wring, 


Wrung, 


Wrung. 


Write, 


Wrote, 


Written. 



Note. — Many of the words in the list are irregular to the eye, not to the ear. 
The preference is one of orthography. Thus, rapt and rapped are pronounced 
alike ; so, also, drest, dressed, blest, blessed, and others. Sometimes the difference 
in sound is that of t and its correlative d : — dwelt, dwelled, spelt, spelled. Besides 
the words in the list, there are a few forms which are seldom found except in the 
poets or in the older usages of the language. The following very rarely have a 
regular past and past participle : — Grind, lay, pay, shake, slide, sweep, string, 
strive, wind, wring. 

Betide has (obs.) betid; bide has (obs.) bided; creep has (obs.) crope; curse has 
sometimes curst; dive has (obs.) dove, diven; heath&s (colloquial) heat; plead has 
(improperly) plead; reave (itself little used) has reft, u. ; shear has (obs.) shore; 
show has (obs.) shew, shewn; strow, strew, or (obs.) straw, has stroived, strew nd 
(obs.), strawed, strawn, strewn; but it may now be regarded as a regular verb, — 
strew, strewed, strewed. 



Defective Verbs. 

Defective verbs are those in which some of the principal 
parts are wanting. 

They are may, can, shall, and mil, which have the past 
tense, but no participles ; must and ought, which have 
neither a past tense nor participles; quoth, which has 
neither a present tense nor participles. 

When must refers to past time, it is used in the present-perfect 
tense. 



APPENDIX. 305 

Redundant and Impersonal Verbs. 

A redundant verb has more than one form for its past 
tense or past participle. 

Ex. — Thrive, thrived, or throve, thrived or thriven. 

An impersonal verb is one by which an action or a state 
is asserted independently of any particular subject. 

Ex. — It rains. It snows. 

Methinks, methought, meseems, meseemed, may be regarded as im- 
personal, or rather unipersonal, verbs. 

Ex. — My father ! methinks I see my father. 

They are equivalent to I think, I thought, It seems, It seemed to me. 



APPENDIX III 



Conjugation of the Verb TO BE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, We are, 

2. Thou art, (Ye or) You are, 

3. He is ; They are. 

Present Perfect Tense, 

1. I have been, We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, You have been, 

3. He has been ; They have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. I was, We were, 

2. Thou wast, You were, 

3. He was ; They were. 

26* 



306 APPENDIX. 



Past Perfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, You had been, 

3. He had been ; They had been. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will be, * We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, You shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be ; They shall or will be. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been, We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will have been ; They shall or will have been. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 
Present Tense. 

1. I may be, We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, You may be, 

3. He may be ; They may be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have been, We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; They may have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might be, We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, You might be, 

3. He might be ; They might be. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have been, We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; They might have been. 



APPENDIX. 307 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Tense* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am, If we are, 

2. If thou art, If you are, 

3. If he is ; If they are. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. If I have been, If we have been, 

2. If thou hast been, If you have been, 

3. If he has been ; If they have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I was, If we were, 

2. If thou wast, If you were, 

3. If he was; If they were. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. If I had been, If we had been, 

2. If thou hadst been, - If you had been, 

3. If he had been ; If they had been. 

Future Tense. 

1. If I shall or will be, If we shall or will be, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be, If you shall or will be, 

3. If he shall or will be ; If they shall or will be. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. If I shall or will have been, If we shall or will have been, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have been, If you shall or will have been, 

3. If he shall or will have been ; If they shall or will have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. {Subjunctive form.) 

Note. — Besides the forms already given, the subjunctive has another in the 
present and the past, peculiar to itself. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be, If we be, 

2. If thou be, If you be, 

3. If he be; If they be. 



308 APPENDIX. 



Past Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were, If we were, 

2. If thou wert, If you were, 

3. If he were ; If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Be, or Be thou ; Be ye or you. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. To be. 

Present Perfect. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being. Past. Been. 

Perfect. Having been. 

Common Style. 

Conjugate the verb be as in the common style, thus : — 







INDICATIVE 


MODE. 








Present Tense, 




1. 

2. 
3. 


I am, 
You are, 
He is; 




We are, 
You are, 
They are. 



Present Perfect Tense, 

1. I have been, We have been, 

2. You have been, You have been, 

3. He has been ; They have been. 

In the same manner, let the learner go through all the tenses and modes. 

Synopsis is a short view of the verb, showing its forms through the 
modes and tenses in a single number and person. 



APPENDIX. 309 



Synopsis of the verb be, in the first person, singular number. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Present. I am. Past. Per/. I had been. 

Pres. Per/. I have been. Future. I shall be. 

Past. I was. Put. Per/. I shall have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present. If I am. Past Perf. If I had been. 

Pres. Perf. If I have been. Future. If I shall be. 

Past. If I was. Fut. Perf. If I shall have been. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present. I may be. Past. I might be. 

Pres. Perf. I may have been. Past Perf. I might have been. 

Here the first person ends; yet it is well for the pupil to give the imperative, 
the infinitive, and the participles. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present. Be thou. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present. To be. Perfect. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being. Perfect. Having been. 



Conjugation of the Regular Yerb TO LOYE. 
Active Voice. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

1. I love, We love, 

2. Thou lovest, You love, 

3. He loves ; They love. 



310 APPENDIX. 



Present Perfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; They have loved. 

Bast Tense, 

1. I loved, We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, You loved, 

3. He loved ; They loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had loved, We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; They had loved. 

Future Tense, 

1. I shall or will love, We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love ; They shall or will love. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have loved, We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved, You shall or will have loved, 

3. He shall or will have loved ; They shall or will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 
Present Tense. 

1. I may love, We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, You may love, 

3. He may love ; . They may love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have loved, We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved ; They may have loved. 



APPENDIX. 311 





Past Tense* 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. Plural. 

I might love, We might love, 
Thou mightst love, You might love, 
He might love ; They might love. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have loved, We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. {Regular form.) 
Present Tense. 

1. If I love, If we love, 

2. If thou lovest, If you love, 

3. If he loves ; If they love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. If I have loved, If we have loved, 

2. If thou hast loved, If you have loved, 

3. If he has loved ; If they have loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I loved, If we loved, 

2. If thou lovedst, If you loved, 

3. If he loved ; If they loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. If I had loved, If we had loved, 

2. If thou hadst loved, If you had loved, 

3. If he had loved ; If they had loved. 

Future Tense. 

1. If I shall or will love, If we shall or will love, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love, If you shall or will love, 

3. If he shall or will love ; If they shall or will love. 



312 APPENDIX. 



Future Perfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have loved, If we shall or will have loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved, If you shall or will have loved, 

3. If he shall or will have loved ; If they shall or will have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. {Subjunctive form.) 
Present Tense, 

1. If I love, If we love, 

2. If thou love, If you love, 

3. If he love ; If they love. 

Past Tense, 

1. If I loved, If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, If you loved, 

3. If he loved; If they loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Love, or Love thou. Love, or Love you. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Loving. Past. Loved. 

Perfect. Having loved. 





Passive 


Voice. 




INDICATIVE MODE. 




Present 


Tense, 


Singular. 

1. I am loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 

3. He is loved ; 




Plural. 

We are loved, 
You are loved, 
They are loved. 



APPENDIX. 313 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; They have been loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I was loved, We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, You were loved, 

3. He was loved ; They were loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been loved, We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; They had been loved. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will be loved, We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, You shall or will be loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved ; They shall or will be loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been We shall or will have been 

loved, loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been You shall or will have been 

loved, loved, 

3. He shall or will have been They shall or will have been 

loved ; loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 
Present Tense. 

1. I may be loved, We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; They may be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have been loved, We may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; They may have been loved. 

27 



314 APPENDIX. 



Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved, We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; They might be loved. 

Past Perfect Tense, 

1. I might have been loved, We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, You might have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; They might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. {Regular form.) 
Present Tense, 

1. If I am loved, If we are loved, 

2. If thou art loved, If you are loved, 

3. If he is loved ; If they are loved. 

Present Perfect Tense, 

1. If I have been loved, If we have been loved, 

2. If thou hast been loved, If you have been loved, 

3. If he has been loved ; If they have been loved. 

Past Tense, 

1. If I was loved, If we were loved, 

2. If thou wast loved, If you were loved, 

3. If he was loved ; If they were loved. 

Past Perfect Tense, 

1. If I had been loved, If we had been loved, 

2. If thou hadst been loved, If you had been loved, 

3. If he had been loved ; If they had been loved. 

Future Tense, 

1. If I shall or will be loved, If we shall or will be loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be loved, If you shall or will be loved, 

3. If he shall or will be loved ; If they shall or will be loved. 



APPENDIX. 315 



Future Perfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have been If we shall or will have been 

loved, loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have If you shall or will have been 

been loved, loved, 

3. If he shall or will have been If they shall or will have been 

loved ; loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. {Subjunctive form.) 
Present Tense. 

1. If I be loved, If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, If you be loved, 

3. If he be loved ; If they be loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I were loved, If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved ; If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Be loved, or Be thou loved ; Be loved, or Be you loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present. To be loved. Perfect. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being loved. Past (passive). Loved. 

Perfect. Having been loved. 



Interrogative and Negative Forms. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively in the indicative and the 
potential mode by placing the subject after it, or after the first 
auxiliary. 

Ex.— Ind., Do I love? Have I loved? Did I love? Had I loved? Shall 
1 love? Shall I have loved? Pot., Can I love? Can I have loved? etc. 



316 



APPENDIX. 



A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the adverb not after it, 
or after the first auxiliary ; but the negative adverb should be placed 
before the infinitive and the participles. 

Ex. — Ind., I love not, or I do not love. I have not loved. I loved not, or 
I did not love. I had not loved, etc. Inf., Not to love. Not to have loved. 
Pari., Not loving. Not loved. Not having loved. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively in the indicative 
and the potential mode by placing the subject, and the adverb not, 
after the verb, or after the first auxiliary. 



Ex. — Love I not? or Do I not love? 
Had I not loved ? etc. 



Have I not loved? Did I not love? 



Forms for each Division of Time Combined. 
The Yerb TO MAKE. 

INDICATJVE MODE. 
Present Tense* 







1st Sing. 


2d Sing. 


3d Sing. 






I 


Thou 


He, She, It, 


1. 


tndef. 


make, 


makest, 


makes. 


2. 


Prog, incomp, 


, am making, 


art making, 


is making. 


3. 


Compd. 


have made, 


hast made, 


has made. 


1 


Prog, compd. 


have been making, 


hast been making, 


has been making. 


5. 


Emphatic. 


do make, 


dost make, 


does make. 


6 


Passive. 


am made, 


art made, 


is made. 


7. 
8. 


Pas. prog. 
Pas. compd. 






is making, 
has been made. 


have been made, 


hast been made, 






1st Plur. 


2d Plur. 


3d Plur. 






We 


Ye or You 


They 


1. 


Indef. 


make, 


make, 


make. 


2. 


Prog, incomp. 


are making, 


are making, 


are making. 


3. 


Compd. 


have made, 


have made, 


have made. 


4. 


Prog. compd. 


have been making, 


have been making, 


have been making. 


5. 


Emphatic. 


do make, 


do make, 


do make. 


6. 


Passive. 


are made, 


are made, 


are made. 


7. 


Pas. prog. 






are making. 


i 




8. 


Pas. compd. 


have been made, 


have been made, 


have been made. 



APPENDIX. 



317 



1st Sing. 

I 

1. Indef. made, 

2. Prog, incomp. was making, 

3. Compd. had made, 

4. Prog, compd. had been making, 

5. Emphatic. did make, 

6. Passive. was made, 

7. Pas. prog. , 

8. Pas. compd. had been made, 



Past Tense. 

2d Sing. 
Thou 

madest, 
wast making, 
hadst made, 
hadst been making 
didst make, 
wast made, 



hadst been made, 



3d Sing. 
He, She, It, 

made. 

was making, 
had made, 
had been making, 
did make, 
was made, 
was making, 
had been made. 



1. Indef. 

2. Prog, incomp. 

3. Compd. 

4. Prog, compd. 

5. Emphatic. 

6. Passive. 

7. Pas. Prog. 

8. Pas. compd. 



1st Plur. 
We 



were making, 
had made, 
had been ; 
did make, 
were made, 



2d Plur. 
Ye or Tou 

made, 

were making, 

had made, 

had been making, 

did make, 

were made. 



had been made, 



had been made, 



3d Plur. 
They 

made. 

were making, 
had made, 
had been making, 
did make, 
were made, 
were making, 
had been made. 



1. Indef. 

2. Prog, incomp. 

3. Compd. 

4. Prog, compd. 

5. Emphatic. 

6. Passive. 

7. Pas. prog. 

8. Pas. compd. 



Future Tense, 

1st Sing. 2d Sing. 

I Thou 

will make, wilt make, 

will be making, wilt be making, 

will have made, [ing, wilt have made, [ing, will have made. [ing. 

will have been mak- wilt have been mak- will have been mak- 



3d Sing. 
He, She, It, 

will make, 
will be making. 



will be made, 



wilt be made, 



will have been made, wilt have been made 



will be made, 
will be making, 
will have been made. 



Indef. 

Prog, incomp. 
Compd. 
Prog, compd. 
Emphatic. 
Passive. 
Pas. prog. 
Pas. compd. 
27* 



1st Plur. . 2d Plur. 3d Plur. 

We Te or Tou They 

will make, will make, will make, 

will be making, will be making, will be making, 

will have made, [ing, will have made, [ing, will have made. [ing. 
will have been mak- will have been mak- wilt have been mak- 



will be made, 



will be made, 



will be made. 

, , will be making. 

will have been made, will have been made, will have been made. 



APPENDIX IV. 







CONNECTIVES. 








(subordinate.) 






I. List of Prepositions. 




aboard, 


before, 


excepting, 


till, 


about, 


behind, 


for, 


to, 


above, 


below, 


from, 


touching, 


across, 


beneath, 


in, into, 


toward, 


after, 


beside, 


notwithstanding, 


towards, 


against, 


besides, 


of, 


under, 


along, 


between, 


on, 


underneath, 


amid, or 


betwixt, 


over, 


until, 


amidst, 


beyond, 


past, 


unto, 


among, 


by, 


regarding, 


up, 


amongst, 


concerning, respecting, 


upon, 


around, 


down, 


round, 


with, 


at, 


during, 


since, 


within, 


athwart, 


ere, 


through, 


without. 


bating, 


except, 


throughout, 




Complex 


prepositions 


consist of two words, and 


are parsed as a 


single word. 









Ex. — According to, as to, as far, out of, instead of, because of, off from, 
over against, round about, from among, from between, from around, from 
before, and the like. 



II. Subordinate Connectives. 

1. For Substantive clauses. That, that not, but, but that, and the 
interrogatives, who, which, what, whether; where, whither, whence; 
when, how long, how often; why, wherefore, how. 
318 



APPENDIX. 319 



2. For adjective clauses. Who, which, ivhat, that, as, whoever, 
whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, and some- 
times the relative adverbs where, when, why, how, 

3. For adverbial clauses. 

(a.) Connectives which denote place. These are where, whither, 
whence, wherever, whithersoever, as far as, as long as, further than. 

(b.) Connectives which denote time. These are, when, while, whilst, 
as, before, after, ere, till, until, since, whenever, as long as, as 
soon as, the moment, the instant, as frequently as, as often as. 

(c.) Connectives which denote causal relations. These are the con- 
junctions because, for, as, whereas, since, inasmuch (causal), if, 
unless, though, lest, except, provided, provided that (conditional), that, 
that not, lest (final), though, although, notwithstanding, however, 
whatever, whoever, while, with the correlatives yet, still, nevertheless 
(concessive). 

(d.) Connectives which denote manner. These are, as, just as, 
so — as, same — as (correspondence), so — that, such — that (consequence), 
as — as (comparison of equality), the — the, the — so much the (pro- 
portionate equality), than, more than, less than (comparison of in- 
equality). 



III. Co-ordinate Connectives. 

1. Copulative. And ; so, also, likewise, too, besides, moreover, 
furthermore, nay more, even ; both — and, as well — as, not only — but, 
but also, but likewise, first, secondly, thirdly, etc. 

2. Adversative. But; yet, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding, 
however now. 

3. Alternative. Or, nor; else, otherwise ; either — or, neither — nor. 

4. Causal. For, therefore, wherefore, consequently, hence, now, 
then. 

(a.) Besides these, there are many phrases which have the effect of co-ordi- 
nate conjunctions, hut are used to connect entire sentences, or even the higher 
divisions of discourse. They are such as, " on the contrary," " in the first 
place," " in the second place." etc., " in fine," " to explain." " to return," " in other 
words," " to proceed," " as confirmatory of the statement" (see 928). 



APPENDIX V. 



Rules of Syntax. 

Mule X (137). — A noun or a pronoun used as the 
subject of a proposition must be in the nominative 

case. 

See 64, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; 699; 51, obs. ; 214, a, b; 215, a, b; 216, a, b; 217; 385- 
397, 1, 2, 3. 

Mule II. — 1 (147). — A noun or a pronoun used 
with the copula to form the predicate must be in the 
nominative case. 

2. A noun or a pronoun used as the second attri- 
bute after a copulative verb must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

See 55, 3; 147, a, b, c, d; 692, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, a; 219, a, b; 220. 

Mule III, (159). — An adjective used, with the cop- 
ula or with a copulative verb to form the predicate 
belongs to the subject. 

See 159, a; 55, 2; 221. 

Mule IV. (168). — The verb must ag?*ee ivith the 
subject in person and number. 

See 168, a, b; 213; 215, a, b; 216, a, b; 217, a. 

Mule V. (254). — An adjective or a participle, used 
as a modifier, belongs to the noun or pronoun which 
it limits. 

See 282, 1, 2 ; 283, 1, a, b, c, d, e,f, 2, a, b, c, d, e, 3, a, b, c, 4, a, b, c, d, 5, a, b, 
6 ; 284, a, b. 
320 



APPENDIX. 321 



Mule VI. (25S), — A noun or a pronoun used to 
explain or identify another noun or pronoun is put 
by apposition in the same case. 

See 258, a, b, c; 259; 260, a; 261, a. 

Mule VII. (267). — A noun or a pronoun used to 
limit a noun by denoting possession must be in the 
possessive case. 

See 268-275. 

Mule VIII. — 1 (296). — A noun or a pronoun used 
to complete the meaning of a transitive verb or its 
participles must be in the objective case. 

2.— A noun or a pronoun used to complete the mean- 
ing of any verb by showing that to, for, of, or out of 
which the action is exerted must be in the objective 
case. 

S (308).— Two substantives denoting the same per- 
son or thing, both together being used to complete 
the meaning of a copulative verb, the one as princi- 
pal, the other as attributive object, must both be in 
the objective case. 

See 302-305. 

4— Two substantives denoting different persons or 
things, being used to complete the meaning of a 
transitive verb, whether as direct object, or one as 
direct and the other as indirect, must both be in the 
objective case. 

See 306-308, a, b, etc. 

Mule IX. (333). — Adverbs are used to limit verbs, 
participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

See 341-351. 

Mule X. (356). — The nominative case independent 
and the interjection have no grammatical relation 
to the other parts of the sentence. 



322 APPENDIX. 

Mule XI, (380). — Co-ordinate conjunctions are 
used to connect similar elements. 

See 370-379. 

Mule XII, (385). — When a verb or a pronoun 
relates to two or more nouns connected by a co-ordi- 
nate conjunction, — 

l.—If it agrees zvith them conjointly, it must be in 
the plural number. 

2.— But if it agrees zvith them talcen separately , it 
must be of the same number as that which stands 
next to it. 

3.— If it agrees with one and not the other, it 
must take the number of that one. 

See 336-391, 397-403. 

Mule XIII, (426). — A preposition is used to show 
the relation of its object to the principal term upon 
which the object depends. 

Mule XIV, (427). — A noun or pronoun used as 
the object of a. preposition must be in the objective 
case. 

See 428. 

Mule XV, (434). — The infinitive depends upon the 
word which it limits. 

See 454, 455, 480. 

Mule XVI, (556). — Subordinate connectives are 
used to join dissimilar elements. 

See Appendix IV. 

Mule XVII. (585) .—The relative (or any pronoun) 
agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and 
gender, but not necessarily in case. 

See 69, 3 ; 582-586. 



APPENDIX. 323 



Added Rules. 

A. Participles have the construction of adjectives 
and nouns, and are limited like verbs. 

_B. A noun or a pronoun used as the subject or 
predicate nominative of an abridged proposition is : 

l.—In the nominative absolute with a partici- 
ple or an infinitive, when its case depends upon no 
other word. 

See 699. 

^. — In the objective ivith an infinitive, when its 
case depends upon a verb or a preposition. 

C. A noun or a pronoun used in a responsive sen- 
tence must be in the same case as the interrogative 
which it answers. 

See 762, 763. 

_D. The "to" of the infinitive is omitted after the 
active voice of bid, dare, let, make, hear, see, feel, 
need. 

JE. Before nouns in the objective denoting time, 
measure, distance, excess, quantity, value, and be- 
fore such as follow near, nigh, like, and worth, the 
proposition is usually omitted. 

Suggestion. — As the student advances, his attention should often he called 
to the many analogies which pervade the language in all its departments. These 
should first he recognized and then verified by such examples as he may collect 
from good authority. They should then he brought out into distinct statement. 
These statements become rules. All rules should be so carefully made as to 
include a given class, and should be so guarded as to be true of every individual 
instance in the class, or else should be accompanied with the proper exceptions. 
In this way Special Rules may be formed almost without limit. No exercise 
will be found more profitable than that of studying and expressing the various 
analogies of the language in the elements which represent its sounds, its ideas as 
well as their relations, aud its various combinations for thought and feeling. 



